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2014-01-31 Fri

#1740. interpretor interpreter [spelling][suffix][latin]

ǯɸֻŪ˴ؤ򤤤

߷˧ͺ ԡرѸ츻ŵʽ̺ǡˡ١ʸҡ1999ǯp.731ˤˤޤȡinterpreterȤˤơ -er Ѥ褦ˤʤäΤ16ȤƤޤ-er ͥˤʤäطʤˤϤɤʻ𤬤äΤǤ礦鹬Ǥ


줫龯Ĵ٤Ƥߤ interpreter Ȥ1ǤϤʤư -er, -or 롤ŪΤ褦ǤꡤŪʣȤߤ롥ܳŪ˲ˤϾĴ٤ʤФʤʤȻפΤǡϼޤΤΤ򼨤
-or -er ִ줿ΡޤεִϡѸ˾夷Фи롥ˤĤƤС -er ϱѸΤΡ -or ϥƥͳ褹ΤǤ뤬Ѹ衤ξԤѤ뤤ʻѤ㤬롥Ѹˤƥƥ -or ıñδŪįȡUpward and Davidson (143--44) ˼Τ褦ʵҤ롥

-OR, -OUR: The ending -OR was originally Lat, and many of the words with that ending in ModE are exact Lat forms: actor, doctor, professor, poerator, error, horror, senior, superior, etc.

Many other words with -OR may have it modelled on the Lat ending, but derive more directly from Fr forms with other endings which were often used in ME or EModE:
* Ambassador, author, emperor, governor, tailor were often written with -OUR in EModE.
* Bachelor, chancellor were often written with -ER in ME and EModE.
* Councillor was formerly not distinguished from counsellor. Both derive from Fr counseiller and were often written counseller in ME.
* Warrior (OFr werreor, ModFr guerrier) was in ME generally spelt -IOUR.
* Ancestor, anchor, traitor have ModFr equivalents ending in -RE (ancêtre, etc.) and were often spelt with -RE in ME.
* Mayor was adopted in EModE as a more Latinate form (compare major) in preference to ME mair(e) from Fr maire.


ƥȤ -or ĸ줬ѸäƤȡ-or ݤΤϳΤ¿DZѸե󥹸δ˽ä -(i)our -er æƥ󲽤⤢äȤ狼롥
Τ褦ʺޤδΤʤ顤٤ηϤ򼨤㤬ˤǤäƤ#1349. procrastination ([2013-01-05-1]) #1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§ ([2013-02-08-1]) Ǥˤ褦ˡƥ줫μѤ˴ƤˤäơƥñѸȤƼݤδˤ䤫ʡֱѸ첽§פŬѤ褦ˤʤäƤȤȤο㡦§1Ĥˡƥ -ator ư̾ -er ȤƼʤ뤤ϼʤˤȤΤäΤǤϤʤ㡦§ȤϸäΤΡºݤˤϤٳΩޤǤˤϻ֤⤫ä櫓Ǥꡤδ֡ŪѰ̻ۤŪѲäΤȻפ롥ƥ -ator ϡޤ -eur, -or, -our ʤɤΥե󥹸Ūʷ֤ФơǽŪˤϱѸ -er ˼äΤǤϤʤ̤ȤƤߤСƥ -ator ȱѸ -er бΩȤˤʤ롥ˤĤơUpward and Davidson (110) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

The -ER may have developed from Lat -ATOR through MFr/ME -OUR to ModE -ER: e.g. Lat portator > OFr porteour > ME porteour > ME portour > ModE porter. Similar histories underlie controller, counter, recorder, turner, and partially also waiter (< OFr waitour).


ơΰѤκǸˤ⤦1դä٤ȤơˤƤ LL interpretātor (explainer) 󤲤ΤǤϤʤ顤OF interpreteur AF interpretour ͳơ ME interpretour interpretor Ԥʤ졤ModE interpreter ؤȻäȹͤ롥
ʾ󤹤Сƥ -ator ˵İ췲θ줬Ѹ -or ¾η֤ФΤѸ -er ػ㤬¿äȤȤǤϤʤ16 interpretor > interpreter ϡλ1ĤȤߤʤȤǤǤ롥
ˤĤƤϡ⤤Ĵ٤ƤͽǤ롥

Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

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2014-01-30 Thu

#1739. AmE-BrE Diachronic Frequency Comparer [corpus][ame_bre][web_service][cgi][frequency][representativeness]

#1730. AmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer ([2014-01-21-1]) ǡ2006ǯν񤭸եƥȤԻƳѼ拾ѥҲ𤷡˴ŤӥġΥġʤ鵤ŤΤƱˡԻ졤ϤƱ100٤ the Brown family of corpora ʡ#428. The Brown family of corpora Ѿա ([2010-06-29-1])ˤϢȤСľ50ǯ֤ۤɤ̻ŪʱƴӤưפ˲ǽȤʤ롥
ǡεǾҲ𤷤 Professor Paul Baker - Linguistics and English Language at Lancaster University ˤ AmE06 BrE06 ˲äơ񤭸եꥫѸɽ Brown (1961), Frown (1992)񤭸եꥹѸɽ LOB (1961), FLOB (1991) ɽФ碌ƥǡ١ѤλϡAmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer ȤۤƱʤΤǡμ ([2014-01-21-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿ϤɽǤϡθиƥȤοٽ̤ϾʤƤꡤ100٤ɽˤȤɤƤΤǡAmE06 BE06 ˤĤԤξɬפʾˤϡAmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer ɤ

    
Sort: by Brown freq by LOB freq by Frown freq by FLOB freq by AmE06 freq by BE06 freq alphabetically nothing (non-regex mode only)

㤨С^movies?$ ϤƤߤȡŪ˥ꥫѸŪȤƤθʬۤ50ǯۤɤδ֤ˡꥹѸˤ⿻ƩƤƤͻҤ狼롥
ƺ̻ŪѲĴΤǤСñǤϤʤĤĵϤʡ#607. Google Books Ngram Viewer ([2010-12-25-1]) ΤۤؤΥġϡthe Brown family of corpora ١ˤƤ뤬椨ˡ(1) ѹդӲǽǤꡤ(2) פ狼äƤʺƸǽݤƤˤȤ뤳ȤϻŦƤ˾ޤΤϡǤ٤ʥѥȡ緿ǷŤߤˤ륳ѥȤϢȤ뤳Ȥ

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2014-01-29 Wed

#1738. ֥ꥫä륨ꥶ٥īαѸפο [language_myth][colonial_lag][sociolinguistics][map]

#1266. ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫 (1) ([2012-10-14-1])#1267. ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫 (2) ([2012-10-15-1])#1268. ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫 (3) ([2012-10-16-1]) ǡꥫѸ줬ŤѸ褯¸ƤȤ "colonial lag" οäˤĤƵꥫǤȤ櫓͸դƤ뤳μοä1ĤˡɸΤΤ롥οäĤƤ Montgomery ܤɾƤꡤ˺äǤ뤫򼡤Τ褦˾Ҳ𤷤Ƥ (66--67)

The idea that in isolated places somewhere in the country people still use 'Elizabethan' or 'Shakespearean' speech is widely held, and it is probably one of the hardier cultural beliefs or myths in the collective American psyche. Yet it lacks a definitive version and is often expressed in vague geographical and chronological terms. Since its beginning in the late nineteenth century the idea has most often been associated with the southern mountains --- the Appalachians of North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky and West Virginia, and the Ozarks of Arkansas and Missouri. At one extreme it reflects nothing less than a relatively young nation's desire for an account of its origins, while at the other extreme the incidental fact that English colonization of North America began during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I four centuries ago. Two things in particular account for its continued vitality: its romanticism and its political usefulness. Its linguistic validity is another matter. Linguists haven't substantiated it, nor have they tried, since the claim of Elizabethan English is based on such little evidence. But this is a secondary, if not irrelevant, consideration for those who have articulated it in print --- popular writers and the occasional academic --- for over a century. It has indisputably achieved the status of a myth in the sense of a powerful cultural belief.


äʤΤǡȤʤäƤϤŪˤɤؤΤۣAppalachia the Ozarks դ꤬餷

Map of Appalachia and the Ozarks

ǤϡαѸѼβäƥꥶ٥īαѸȤΤФаѤΤϡưζѲѷ (ex. clum (climbed), drug (dragged), fotch (fetched), holp (help)) -st ǽñ̾ʣȤƤ -es (ex. postes, beastes, nestes, ghostes) ʤɤ¾αƤѼˤ⸫ħǤꡤѥͭΤΤǤϤʤ (Montgomery 68) εˤϡŪˤۤɤκϤʤΤǤ롥
˽Ҥ٤ƤȤꡤäޤ줿طʤˤϡŤ褭󥰥ɤؤΥޥŪͭȤäԤΥޥ򤷤䤹ȤƤ⡤ԤŪͭȤϲΤȤMontgomery (75) ˤȡ餹͡ФŽĤ줿Ϥ̵ܤļ˼ԡפȤΥåƥʧ뤿ˡäѸϡָŤ褭ѸפǤȤäϽФ줿ΤȤ

Advancing the idea, improbable as it is, that mountain people speak like Shakespeare counters the prevailing ideology of the classroom and society at large that unfairly handicaps rural mountain people as uneducated and unpolished and that considers their language to be a corruption of proper English.


ֻäѼ郎οäˤäơָŤ褭ѤʡѼȤޤѤäȤȤˤʤ롥ҲŪʲͤθʵžǤ롥βͤβͤصžΤ顤켫ΤϰȤǤϤʤȸΤ⤷ʤŪʰտޤˤ餫صžȤȤϡƱտޤˤؤεž⤢ȤȤ򼨺ƤꡤդˤޤĤäȤΤݤȶǤϤʤ

Montgomery, Michael. "In the Appalachians They Speak like Shakespeare." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 66--76.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-12-13-1] [2015-07-10-1]

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2014-01-28 Tue

#1737. ꥫ̾ͳ [onomastics][toponymy][etymology][map]

#1735. ʥ̾ͳ ([2014-01-26-1]) ȡ#1736. ꥹ̾ͳ ([2014-01-27-1]) ³ơϥꥫν (state) ̾ͳˬͤ롥ޤϡäϿޤ顥

Map of USA States

츻̤50ߤȡʲΤ褦ˤʤäƤ롥Ⱦꥫ轻̱θͳ褹롥

NumberOrigin
28American Indian
11English
6Spanish
3French
1Dutch (Rhode Island)
1from America's own history (Washington)


ǤϡCrystal (145) 򻲾Ȥ50̾ͳ򥢥ե٥åȽ˼

AlabamaChoctaw "I open the thicket" (i.e. clears the land)
AlaskaInuit "great land"
ArizonaPapago "place of the small spring"
ArkansasSioux "land of the south wind people"
CaliforniaSpanish "earthly paradise"
ColoradoSpanish "red" (colour of the earth)
ConnecticutMohican "at the long tidal river"
Delawarenamed after English governor Lord de la Warr
FloridaSpanish "land of flowers"
Georgianamed after George II
HawaiiHawaiian "homeland"
IdahoShoshone "light on the mountain"
IllinoisAlgonquian via French "warriors"
IndianaEnglish "land of the Indians"
IowaDakota "the sleepy one"
KansasSioux "land of the south wind people"
KentuckyIroquois "meadow land"
Louisiananamed after Louis XIV of France
Mainenamed after a French province
Marylandnamed after Henrietta maria, queen of Charles I
MassachusettsAlgonquian "place of the big hill"
MichiganChippewa "big water"
MinnesotaDakota Sioux "sky-coloured water"
MississippiChippewa "big river"
MissouriAlgonquian via French "muddy waters" (?)
MontanaSpanish "mountains"
NebraskaOmaha "river in the flatness"
NevadaSpanish "snowy"
New Hampshirenamed after an English county
New Jerseynamed after Jersey (Channel Islands)
New Mexiconamed after Mexico (Aztec "war god, Mextli")
New Yorknamed after the Duke of York
North Carolinanamed after Charles II
North DakotaSioux "friend"
OhioIroquois "beautiful water"
OklahomaChoctaw "red people"
OregonAlgonquian "beautiful water" or "beaver place" (?)
Pennsylvanianamed after William Penn and Latin "woodland"
Rhode IslandDutch "red clay"
South Carolinanamed after Charles II
South DakotaSioux "friend"
TennesseeCherokee settlement name, unknown origin
TexasSpanish "allies"
UtahNavaho "upper land" or "land of the Ute" (?)
VermontFrench "green mountain"
Virginianamed after Elizabeth I, the "virgin queen"
Washingtonnamed after George Washington
West Virginianamed after Elizabeth I, the "virgin queen"
WisconsinAlgonquian "grassy place" or "beaver place" (?)
WyomingAlgonquian "place of the big flats"


ʸ嵭2014/02/24(Mon)ꥫ̾γؽˤɤ

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.

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2014-01-27 Mon

#1736. ꥹ̾ͳ [onomastics][toponymy][etymology][map][celtic]

ε#1735. ʥ̾ͳ ([2014-01-26-1]) ³ơϥꥹν (county, shire) ̾εˤĤơޤϡäϿޤǤOrdnance Survey - Outline maps ꤷ1972--1996ǯε콣̾äϿޤǤ롥ޤ򥯥åƳ (65KB) 뤤ʤ (260KB)PDF (243KB) 򻲾Ȥʤɤ

Map of UK Counties

ʲν̾ͳϡCrystal (143) ˤȤŤWestern Isles, Highland, Central, Borders ʤɡΤΤϾάƤ롥ʤ饱Ƚͳ褹뽣̾¿

Avon"river"
Bedford"Beda's ford"
Berkshire"county of the wood of Barroc" ("hilly place")
Buckingham"riverside land of Bucca's people"
Cambridge"bridge over the river Granta"
Cheshire"county of Chester" (Roman "fort")
Cleveland"hilly land"
Clwyd"hurdle" (? on river)
Cornwall"(territory of) Britons of the Cornovii" ("promontory people")
Cumbria"territory of the Welsh"
Derby"village where there are deer"
Devon"(territory of) the Dumnonii" ("the deep ones", probably miners)
Dorset"(territory of the) settlers around Dorn" ("Dorchester")
Dumfries and Galloway"woodland stronghold"; "(territory of) the stranger-Gaels"
Durham"island with a hill"
Dyfed"(territory of) the Demetae"
Essex"(territory of) the East Saxons"
Fife"territory of Vip" (?)
Glamorgan"(Prince) Morgan's shore"
Gloucester"(Roman) fort at Glevum" ("bright place")
Grampianunknown origin
Gwent"favoured place"
Gwynedd"(territory of) Cunedda" (5th-century leader)
Hampshire"county of Southampton" ("southern home farm")
Hereford and Worcester"army ford"; "(Roman) fort of the Wigora"
Hertford"hart ford"
Humberside"side of the good river"
Kent"land on the border" (?)
Lancashire"(Roman) fort on the Lune" ("health-giving river")
Leicester"(Roman) fort of the Ligore people"
Lincoln"(Roman) colony at Lindo" ("lake place")
London"(territory of) Londinos" ("the bold one") (?)
Lothian"(territory of) Leudonus"
Man"land of Mananan" (an Irish god)
Manchester"(Roman) fort at Mamucium"
Merseyside"(side of the) boundary river"
Norfolk"northern people"
Northampton"northern home farm"
Northumberland"land of those dwelling north of the Humber"
Nottingham"homestead of Snot's people"
Orkney"whale island" (?) (After J. Field, 1980)
Oxford"ford used by oxen"
Powys"provincial place"
Scillyunknown origin
Shetland"hilt land"
Shropshire"county of Shrewsbury" ("fortified place of the scrubland region")
Somerset"(territory of the) settlers around Somerton" ("summer dwelling")
Stafford"ford beside a landing-place"
Strathclyde"valley of the Clyde" (the "cleansing one")
Suffolk"southern people"
Surrey"southern district"
Sussex"(territory of) the South Saxons"
Tayside"silent river" or "powerful river"
Tyne and Wear"water, river"; "river"
Warwick"dwellings by a weir"
Wight"place of the division" (of the sea) (?)
Wiltshire"county around Wilton" ("farm on the river Wylie")
Yorkshire"place of Eburos"


ʸ嵭2014/02/24(Mon)ꥹ̾γؽˤɤ

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.

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2014-01-26 Sun

#1735. ʥ̾ͳ [onomastics][toponymy][etymology][map][canada]

#1733. Canada ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-24-1]) ӡ#1734. Canada ιϡ ([2014-01-25-1]) ǥʥ夲ϥʥν (province) Ƚལ (territory) ̾ˤĤơ
ʥ2̤ѤؤΦȤȤƤ103ལʤ롥Nunavut 1999ǯΩ줿Фνལǡ̱¿轻̱²Ǥ롥

Map of Canada

Northwest Territories ʸ̤ʤΤǽ츻ŵˤĴ٤12ʽ˽̾Ǥε򥢥ե٥åȽ˷Ǥ롥

Alberta ϡQueen Victoria 4ܤ̼ Princess Louise Caroline Alberta ˤʤࡥ
Brunswick ϡGeorge II, Duke of Brunswick ˤʤࡥ
Columbia ϡϥɥѲҤλ Columbia District Ѥ줿֥֥ϡפΰա
Labrador ϡݥȥ lavrador (yeoman farmer) ͳ褹Ȥ졤John Cabot ̿̾Ȥꤵ뤬̤ܡ
Manitoba ϡ轻̱θ Algonquian manito bau (spirit straight) ꡥ manito ϡ1698ǯ˱Ѹ manitou ȤäƤꡤ֡ʥ르󥭥²Ρ⡨Ķϡפɽ魯
Newfoundland ϡֿȯϡפȤ John Cabot ˤ̿̾줿Ρ
Nova Scotia ϡƥ "New Scotland" ΰա
Nunavut ϡ轻̱θ Inuit "our land" ̣롥
Ontario ϡ轻̱θ Iroquoian Oniatariio (the fine lake) Υե󥹸ꡥ
Prince Edward ϡGeorge III 4ܤ© Prince Edward Augustus, the Duke of Kent ˤʤࡥ
Quebec ϡ轻̱θ Algonquian kabek (the place shut in) ꡥ
Saskatchewan ϡ轻̱θ Cree kisiskatchewani (swift-flowing river) ꡥRocky ̮ȯƤ줿̾
Yukon ϡ轻̱θ Athapascan yukon-na (big river) ꡥ١󥰳Ƥ줿̾

Referrer (Inside): [2014-01-28-1] [2014-01-27-1]

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2014-01-25 Sat

#1734. Canada ι [vexillology][heraldry][history][bilingualism][canada]

ε#1733. Canada ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-24-1]) ǡʥˤѸˤ򳵴ѤΤʤǡʥ1965ǯ˹Υǥ򥫥Ǥ򤫤ɤäߤΤ (Maple Leaf flag) ѹȤ˿줿National Symbols - Anthems and Symbols - Canadian Identity ˤȡΥʥιȤƤ͡ʥǥ󤬤äȤ˶ᤤüζ (canton) ˡΤǤ뤳Ȥɽ魯ΤȤ Union Jack ۤ줿Τ¿ä㤨С1957ǯλǤϰʲκΤΤѤƤ

National Flag of Canada in 1957National Flag of Canada


ߤιΥǥʾDZޡˤΥǤϡʥξħȤưѤƤΤǤꡤξ¦νļʤΤʿΤɽ魯֤ϡUnion Jack 򻲾ȤۿǤ⤢롥1965ǯιѹˤäƤϡUnion Jack ݻΤޤᤤĤƤä褦ˤ衤Maple Leaf flag κѤˤꡤʥ̱ΥꥹΩռϤäޤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
˼ʥϤϡݼŪʤݻƤ롥#433. Law French ȱѹ񲦤ϡ ([2010-07-04-1]) Ǽ夲ѹ (The Royal coat of arms) Ϥǥ Union Jack ⤢Сڤνˤϥե󥹤Ȥδطʪ fleurs-de-lis Ƥ롥¤ɴեͥɽ魯ơʤ饫ǤդƽۤƤ롥 (motto) ϥƥ A MARI VSQVUE AD MARE (from sea through to sea) Ƚ񤫤ƤꡤξƱͤˡʿΤΤĤʤΦȤǤ뤳ȼΤǤ롥

The Arms of Canada

ʤե󥹷Ϥǻ Quebec ν fleurs-de-lis ۤˤեŪʥǥǤ롥

Flag of Quebec

ϢȤƤϡ#1697. Liberia ι ([2013-12-19-1])#1703. եꥫο̱ˤȹ ([2013-12-25-1]) ⻲ȡ

Referrer (Inside): [2014-01-26-1]

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2014-01-24 Fri

#1733. Canada ˤѸ [canadian_english][history][map][timeline][canada]

#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1])#1718. Wales ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-09-1])#1719. Scotland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-10-1]) ˰³礿Ѹ˥꡼Ȥƥʥ夲롥

Map of Canada

ʥϤؤϡ1ǯۤˡޤ̥åȤ褷ϼġϫĤ1000ǯ󥰤衼åѿͤȤƽƥʥ夷衼åѿͤˤܳŪʥʥõγϤϡ֥ȯ15ԤʤФʤʤä
1497ǯJohn Cabot (1425--99) ϡ󥰥ɲ Henry VII εĤơ٤Bristol ؤȽйҤCabot ĤΤϥǤϤʤʥ쳤ߤäCabot ιҳ¿õߤ򤽤ꡤθΥʥõȳȯ˹׸뤳ȤȤʤäºݤΤȤCabot 夷Υʥ쳤ߤϡꥹե󥹡ڥ󡤥ݥȥεդˤϤǤíεȤΤƤ褦
1534ǯե󥹲 Jacques Cartier (1491--1557) 򥢥ϩȯΤФCartier Newfoundland ĶơSaint Lawrence Ѥߡǥ² (Iroquois) ʹǡ¼פ̣ kanata αƤ롥줬 Canada εȤ롥ʥõ̤ơե󥹤ϥӡСǰפ˾򸫤ʥؤδͿ򿼤ƤȤˤʤäNew France ȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤäʥ1663ǯ˥եΤȤʤꡤ̱Ͽ͸1ͤۤɤˤʤäƤϡߤ670ͤΥե󥹷ϥʥͤǤ롥ե󥹤ϡסõꥹȶ۶δǥߥå򲼤ꡤ1682ǯˤϥᥭѤãƤơ18Ƭκˤϡե󥹤Ƥ˹ʸפݤ˻ä
󥰥ɿͤ٤ƥʥؤθפϤƤ16Ⱦˤ Newfoundland St. John's ƽο̱ϤߤϥɥѲ (Hudson's Bay Company) Ωƥϥɥնθפꤷ18δ֤˱ʩΩ򤱤ʤʤꡤ1754--63ǯˤϥեǥ (French and Indian War) Ǿ͡ꥹξˤꥫʥιڤѿ̱ϤȤʤäδ֤ˡNew Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Quebec Maine ޤ Acadia 顤Ȥե󥹷ϰ̱ꥫ Louisiana ʤɤ뤳Ȥˤʤäߤ Louisiana äƤե󥹸Ѽ Cajun (< Acadian) äϡΥե󥹷ϰ̱Ǥ롥
ꥫΩ˺ݤơꥹŪä (Loyalist) ο͡ϡꥫ˻Ĥ뤳Ȥ餷Ȥ4ͤȤϤ Nova Scotia ءΦؤȰܽŪʸ٤ι⤤滺ο͡ޤ̤˰̱ȤȤϡ˾塤ޤǤ롥ˡEngland, Scotland, Ireland ľܤΰ̱⤪ʤ졤ʥˤѸ͸̤αѸä̱ˤꡤ̥ꥫˤƥꥹǻ Upper Canada ʸߤ Ontarioˤȥե󥹿ǻ Lower Canada ʸߤ Quebecˤ̤褦ˤʤä2ΩȤ⤤1812ǯαƴ֤襤ǤϡUpper Canada ȤʤꡤꥫȥʥȤʬΥռޤ뤳ȤȤʤä
1867ǯʥ Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Ontario, Quebec ѼΤȤʤꡤ1931ǯˤΩãϢˮ (The Commonwealth of Nations) ΰȤƻĤ⡤1965ǯˤ Union Jack Ȥ߹ѤơߤΥǤιѡ1982ǯˤϼηˡꤷ˼縢ʤ顤ʥΩݻƤꡤꥶ٥ȸȤƤʥʥλʾˤϥꥶ٥Ƥˡ
ߡʥ¿ȤǤ롥ʥͤ60%Ѹüԡ20%ե󥹸üԤǤꡤۤˤ轻̱̱ˤ100ʾθ줬äƤ롥
ʾ塤Ȥ Svartvik and Leech (90--95) 򻲾ȤƼɮʥˤѸιˤĤƤϡ#1698. ꥫαѸγȻȤΰŪʥѥ ([2013-12-20-1]) ӡ#1701. ꥫؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-23-1]) ⻲ȡ
ͤޤǤˡ֥饤󡦥ꥢॺ (60--61) ꡤʥˤǯɽǤƤ

2000̥åȤ̥ꥫؤäƤ롥
800Хեǥɡåʬ
800ɹϤष̥ꥫ̤Ϥޤ롥
1000쥤աꥯΨХ󥰤̥ꥫ˾Φʤ餯˥塼եɥɡ֥ɥȡ⤦1ˡ
1020Х󥰤̥ꥫõ롥
1075饹Υ塼졦̥åȤ̶ʸͥȤʤ롥
1497󡦥ܥåȤ˥塼եɥɤȥס֥ȥ˾Φ
1534åƥȡõȡѤαߤեΤ롥
1583˥塼եɥɤꥹγ̱ϤȤʤ롥
1627ե󥹤̥ꥫˤĤä̱ϡ֥˥塼ե󥹡פ뤿ᡤ˥塼ե󥹲ҤΩ롥
1670ɥǰ׾ϥɥѲҤΩϥɥѤϤϰξȷۤ롥
170120ǯ֤γ38轻̱²Ȥե󥹤ʿ¾֡
1756ǯǡ礭ǤкϤǤ⾡륤ꥹο̱Ϥ˥塼ե󥹤
1763ѥ󤬷Ф졤ǯ褬롥ߥåˤäեο̱Ϥϥꥹڤˤʤ롥˥塼ե󥹤ϥ٥å̱Ϥ̾ΤѤ롥
1783ȥꥪ龦ͤΡȲҤΩ̤äʿΤޤǡ׽꤬Ǥ롥
1791٥åʥʸߤΥ٥åˤȥåѡ/ʥʸߤΥ󥿥ꥪˤȤʬ롥
1812--141812ǯ补ФǤϳ郎ʤ졤衼ʸߤΥȥȡˤϥꥫιꥫΥʥάλߤϼԤ
1821ϥɥѲҤȥΡȲҤʻǯĤŤƤϤ褬롥
1841ʥȡʥʥˤȥʥȡʥåѡʥˤʥȤƺƤ礵롥
1867ѹ̥ꥫˡˤꡤѼΥʥˤϥ󥿥ꥪ٥åΥС˥塼֥󥹥åޤޤƤ
1870ޥ˥ȥСĤŤƥ֥ƥå塦ӥץ󥹡ɥɡɤˤʤ롥
1885ʥǥ󡦥ѥեåŴƻ
1898桼ήǥɥå夬롥桼Ͻལϰ̤Ϳ롥
1905Сȥ󤬽ˤʤ롥
1931ȥߥ󥹥ϤˤꡤꥹμΤ˴ʼ롥
1947ʥȥꥹϡϢ粦Ʊϰ̤ĤȤˤʤ롥
1949ʥξ󵡹ΩСȤʤ롥ꥹϥ˥塼եɥɤ򥫥ʥִԡ
1965ޤǤΥꥹǻꡤդΥǥιǤ롥
1967ȥꥪ񤬳졤ꥹǤϤʤʥȤƤμФޤ롥
1968٥åδΩ򾡤Ȥ뤳ȤŪˡ٥åޤȿ롥
1970٥åΩʤ޿ŪʬΥΩΥ롼ס٥åꥹξ̳Ͷ٥åä򻦳
1982ʥϴʼͳ롥ꥹ餹٤ƤˡŪܹԤ줿塤ˡꤵ롥
1984ԥ롦ȥɡ꤬षǿݼޤΥ֥饤󡦥ޥ롼ˡ
1992ʥꥫᥭƼͳǰ׶Ĵ롥
1993ޥ롼ˡݼ޼Ǥθ򥭥ࡦ٥뤬ʥνȤưѤο塤ϥ󡦥ƥ롥
1995٥åν̱ɼǡ鷺1%κΩݷ褵롥
1998٥å¿ν̱Ω˾硤ϢˮܤεĤäƽΩǤ뤳Ȥ򡤥ʥǹۤ᤿
1999̥ʥ֥Ȥལˤʤ롥̱¿轻̱²ǤལȤƺǽ顥
2003ȥȤǡʳǺSARSʿٱˤȯ
2003٥åǼͳޤ٥åޤˤꡤΩɤޤˤۤ롥
2003󡦥ƥ10ǯؤ᤿κ¤ࡥǤϥݡ롦ޡƥ
2006ݼޤʥܤλ۸򰮤롥ƥ֥󡦥ϡѡ˽Ǥ


֥饤󡦥ꥢॺإʥʥ른եåι񡡥ʥ١ۤ׽ǡ2007ǯ
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 144--49.

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2014-01-23 Thu

#1732. Shakespeare ֤ (2) [shakespeare][spelling][alphabet][graphemics]

#1720. Shakespeare ֤ ([2014-01-11-1]) ǡȤθ¸뼫ȤƤϡߤɸŪֻ Shakespeare ϸʤȽҤ٤ֻ5ढä <k> <s> Τ첻 <e> ʤäΤǤ롥ɽ魯ֻȤ <e> Shakespeare Shake-speare ¿ԤƤȤΤǤ롥Ǥϡ <e> ̵ͭϤɤΤ褦Τ
Crystal and Crystal (72) ˤȡShakespeare ֻǽ˰ʪ˸줿Τϡ1593ǯ Venus and Adonis νǤȼμˤƤǤ롥ʹߡȼԤϤֻ³뤳Ȥˤʤä<e> Τϡ餯 <k> <s> γ٤碌ˤΤ򤱤뤿äȤΤϡ٤碌ˤȡ<k> αεӤѶʤ long <s> κεӤѶʤȤ֤ĤäƤޤ줬뤫δ֤ <e> ʤƤ³ƥϥեȡγϲ褹ʲ޻ȡˡĤޤꡤ䤿θƤ뤢ֻϡꥶ٥īγǰͭλˤȼԤκФֻäȤȤˤʤ롥

Shake-speare

long <s> ˤĤƤϡ#584. long <s> graphemics ([2010-12-02-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Crystal, David and Ben Crystal. The Shakespeare Miscellany. Woodstock & New York: The Overlook Press, 2005.

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2014-01-22 Wed

#1731. English as a Basal Language [model_of_englishes][sociolinguistics][caribbean][lingua_franca][lesser-know_varieties]

ѸüԤѸǥ벽ߤˤĤƤϡmodel_of_englishes γƵ˼夲ƤȤ櫓ŵŪʬ ENL, ESL, EFL 3ʬˤ⤦1 EBL (English as a Basal Language) ä٤Ȥܤ٤򤬤롥#1713. ƤαѸBay Islands ([2014-01-04-1]) ȡ#1714. ƤαѸBluefields Puerto Limon ([2014-01-05-1]) ǻȤ Lipski ʸɤǤȤ˽вäLipski (204) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

In offering a classification of societies where English is used, Moag suggests, in addition to the usual English as a native/second/foreign language, a new category: English as a Basal Language, defined for a society in which "English is the mother tongue of a minority group of a larger populace whose native tongue, often Spanish, is clearly the dominant language of the society as a whole." . . . . Moag's typology is undoubtedly useful and underlines the necessity for expanding the currently accepted typologies to accommodate such situations as the CAmE groups.


ǡѤƤ Moag ʸäƤߤMoag (14) ˤȡEBL ȤƻؼϰˤϼΤ褦ʤΤȤArgentina, Costa Rica (Jamaican Blacks), Dominican Republic (Samaná), Honduras (Coast and Bay Islands), Mexico (Mormon Colonístas), Nicaragua (Meskito Coast), Panama, San Andres (Columbia), St. Maarten (Netherlands Antilles) .
EBL κħϡˤ⤢ȤꡤɤȤƤαѸѤˤ롥ɤαѸüԶƱΤ¿ɤΥڥüԶƱΤܤ餷ƤȤޤΥǥǤϡΤ褦ʼҲŪˤ줿ѸѼŬڤ˰֤Ť뤳ȤǤʤäȤΤϡ3ʬǤϡѸϾ˼ҲŪ˸ҤǤȤ󤬰Ť˴ޤޤƤENL ǤϡʤѸüԤ¿ɤʤΤǡѸμҲŪʰ괶ϳݤƤ롥ESL EFL Ǥ⡤ŪŪ lingua franca ȤƤαѸϳͥݥƥɾƤʿ̱ϼؤȿʤɤˤ㳰Ϥ뤬Moag (36) ˤ褦ˡ¿ξϰŪʤΤǤȹͤˡȤ嵭ϰǤϡѸϾɸȤ¿ɸˤäƼɤƤꡤˤϤüԤˤäƤͥƥɾͿƤΤǤüԤˤͥƥɾϡαѸѼ郎ɸŪѼȤϥ쥪벽ѼǤȤˤФеˡ
Ѹ줬üԤˤäƤɾͿƤȤҲŪϡҤȤǥΤʤ˴ޤɬפơENL, ESL, EFL, EBL 4ʬȤǥ뤬Ƥ뤳ȤȤʤäMoag (12--13) Ǥϡ4̤Τ26κ٤ȽǴߤƤ롥Moag ʸ30ǯʾΤΤʤΤǡEBL ϰפκǿθΤꤿȤǤϤ롥

Lipski, John M. "English-Spanish Contact in the United States and Central America: Sociolinguistic Mirror Images?" Focus on the Caribbean. Ed. M. Görlach and J. A. Holm. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1986. 191--208.
Moag, Rodney. "English as a Foreign, Second, Native and Basal Language." New Englishes. Ed. John Pride. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1982. 11--50.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-09-20-1] [2021-08-10-1]

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2014-01-21 Tue

#1730. AmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer [corpus][ame_bre][web_service][cgi][frequency][spelling]

Professor Paul Baker - Linguistics and English Language at Lancaster University Ȥڡ򶵤ƤäBaker ԻѸ졦Ƹ쥳ѥ BE06 AmE06 ξȡФñꥹȤ롥ΥѥΤϡ桼ID᤹С󥫥ؤ CQP (Corpus Query Processor) system ꥢǤ롥
BE06 AmE06 ϡ2006ǯ˽Ǥ줿ꥹѼȥꥫѼν񤭸նѹեѥǤ롥Ի乽ϡ#428. The Brown family of corpora Ѿա ([2010-06-29-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 The Brown family ˽सƤꡤ500ƥȡ2000η100ۤɤεϤ
ơΥڡɤǤ BE06 Wordlist in WordSmith 5 format AmE06 Wordlist in WordSmith 5 format ʸФǤϤʤ˸ˤɽФ줾ǡ١ơѼθ٤ӤƤ AmE-BrE Frequency 2006 Comparer ʤġƤߤ

    
Sort: by AmE freq by BrE freq alphabetically nothing (non-regex mode only)


ϤΤϸ§ȤPerl5ɽޡ֡ԤʤɤǶڤäɽΡñꥹȤդ롥1ĤθΤߤϤˤ ^ $ Ƕ ^loves$ Τ褦ˤ뤫뤤 "nothing (non-regex mode only)" Υ饸ܥå򥪥ˤ롥
ϷϡǥեȤǤϥꥫѸ쥳ѥˤ٤ι⤤ǥȤ褦ˤʤäƤ ("by AmE freq") ꥹѸ쥳ѥٽ ("by BrE freq")Υե٥åȽ ("alphabetically") ǽñꥹȤϤˡϤΤޤޤνǽϤȤˤϡ"nothing (non-regex mode only)" 򥪥ˤ롥
100쵬ϤΡʺȤʤäƤϡ˾ΥѥʤΤǡˤäƤϽʬ٤ʤȤ⤢뤬ؤ˱ƺåȤˤϷ̤ WORD, AME_2006, BRE_2006 3ڤФơǸιԤ˥ѥȤ "total\t1000000\t1000000" äǡLog-Likelihood Tester, Ver. 1 СƺŪ˸ꤹ뤳ȤǤ롥
Ȥơ#244. ֻαƺΥꥹȡ ([2009-12-27-1]) ΤȤ櫓褯ΤƤƱֻΥڥȴФꥹȤ󤲤褦ʲ򥳥ԡơΥƥȥܥåߡ"nothing (non-regex mode only)" 򤷤Ƽ¹ԤȡͤȤƱѺ´Ǥ롥

acknowledgment, acknowledgement, aging, ageing, aluminum, aluminium, analyze, analyse, apologize, apologise, armor, armour, behavior, behaviour, center, centre, civilization, civilisation, color, colour, defense, defence, disk, disc, endeavor, endeavour, favor, favour, favorite, favourite, fiber, fibre, flavor, flavour, fulfill, fulfil, gray, grey, harbor, harbour, honor, honour, humor, humour, inquiry, enquiry, judgment, judgement, labor, labour, license, licence, liter, litre, marvelous, marvellous, mold, mould, mom, mum, neighbor, neighbour, neighborhood, neighbourhood, odor, odour, organize, organise, pajamas, pyjamas, parlor, parlour, program, programme, realize, realise, recognize, recognise, skeptic, sceptic, specter, spectre, sulfur, sulphur, theater, theatre, traveler, traveller, tumor, tumour


ޤǤϡäֻ˴ؤƺΥѥˤӤϡ#708. Frequency Sorter CGI ([2011-04-05-1]) ѤꡤBNC Frequency Extractor ([2012-12-08-1]) ȡ#1322. ANC Frequency Extractor ([2012-12-09-1]) Ȥ߹碌ꡤthe Brown Family corpora ʻѤʤɡѼ拾ѥθӤˤн褷ƤΥġˤ¿ʴĶǤ

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2014-01-20 Mon

#1729. glottochronology ˬ [glottochronology][lexicology][family_tree][pidgin][punctuated_equilibrium][speed_of_change]

#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) ǡꥫθؼԡؼ Swadesh (1909--67) 󾧤ǯؤߤŪȤʤΤϡ"the fundamental everyday vocabulary of any language---as against the specialized or 'cultural' vocabulary---changes at a relatively constant rate" (452) ȤΤSwadesh ʣθĴ˴Ťΰ®٤86%ǤȤߤƤ롥ιͤˤ͡ȽФƤ뤬˼ȤƤ⡤ʤ®٤ȤΤꤦΤȤ礭꤬Ĥ롥ܸä®٤ִƤ椯Ȥ˴ؤ븶ŪˤĤơSwadesh ȤϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Why does the fundamental vocabulary change at a constant rate? . . . . / A language is a highly complex system of symbols serving a vital communicative function in society. The symbols are subject to change by the influence of many circumstances, yet they cannot change too fast without destroying the intelligibility of language. If the factors leading to change are great enough, they will keep the rate of change up to the maximum permitted by the communicative function of language. We have, as it were, a powerful motor kept in check by a speed regulating mechanism. . . . / While it is subject to manifold impulses toward change, language still must maintain a considerable amount of uniformity. If it is to be mutually intelligible among the members of the community, there must be a large element of agreement in its details among the individuals who make up the community. As between the oldest and the youngest generations, there are often difference of vocabulary and usage but these are never so great as to make it impossible for the two groups to understand each other. This is the circumstance which sets a maximum limit on the speed of change in language. / Acquisition of additional vocabulary may proceed at a faster rate than the replacement of old words. Replacement in culture vocabulary usually goes with the introduction of new cultural traits replacing the old ones, a process which at times may be completed in a few generations. Replacement of fundamental vocabulary must be slower because the concepts (e.g., body parts) do not change fundamentally. Change can come about by the introduction of partial synonyms which only rarely, and even then for the most part gradually, expand their area and frequency of usage to the point of replacing the earlier word. (459--60)


ϴøäִ®٤ΤȤͤ˸³뤳Ȥ˴ؤƤθŪˤϤʤäƤ뤬ʤ86%ȤۤܰͤȤΤȤ䤤ˤƤʤ褦˻פ롥ᤤ٤⤢뤬ʤ餻ФΤ餤ˤʤȤиŪʵҤˤȤɤޤȤȤ
ޤglottochronology ȤƤΤϡ²η˼褦ʡλŪϢ³Ǥ롥٤θܿβȤƤΥԥ (pidginisation) λʤɤθȡ嵭η׻ϤޤѤʤǥǤޤ褦ʸˤĤƤϴøäִΰ®٤뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ֤򼨤ƱŬѤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤǤϤʤơԤθϡԥθ#1397. ³ʿեǥ ([2013-02-22-1]) 褦ˡˤˤƤϡޤꤵƤ⤺ä̤ΤȤǤäǽ⤤
glottochronology ϡǥǤޤ褦ʸ˴ؤ¤ˤƤϡʤȤ⵭Ū˶̣ǤꤦȻפΤ褦ʸĤɾͤϤΤǤϤʤ

Swadesh, Morris. "Lexico-Statistic Dating of Prehistoric Ethnic Contacts: With Special Reference to North American Indians and Eskimos." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 96 (1952): 452--63.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-03-11-1] [2022-02-23-1]

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2014-01-19 Sun

#1728. Jespersen θ [language_change][teleology][evolution][unidirectionality][drift][history_of_linguistics][artificial_language][language_myth]

ѸˤμȤDZѸ줬ФƤѲ⤹ȡָϤɤɤѲƤƤפȤȿ򼨤ȤΤۤ¿ϡ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]) (2) ˵󤲤ָѲϤΨŪʾ֤ؤδʿǤפƱΤǤꡤѤȤǤƤ֤٤Τ⤷ʤεǤҤ٤ȤꡤѲϿǤǤʤȤΤθؼԤθǤ롥ȤĤƤϡ̾ʸؼԤΤʤˤ⡤ѤȾԤǥޡαѸؼ Otto Jespersen (1860--1943) ⤽1ͤǤ롥

. . . in all those instances in which we are able to examine the history of any language for a sufficient length of time, we find that languages have a progressive tendency. But if languages progress towards greater perfection, it is not in a bee-line, nor are all the changes we witness to be considered steps in the right direction. The only thing I maintain is that the sum total of these changes, when we compare a remote period with the present time, shows a surplus of progressive over retrogressive or indifferent changes, so that the structure of modern languages is nearer perfection than that of ancient languages, if we take them as wholes instead of picking out at random some one or other more or less significant detail. And of course it must not be imagined that progress has been achieved through deliberate acts of men conscious that they were improving their mother-tongue. On the contrary, many a step in advance has at first been a slip or even a blunder, and, as in other fields of human activity, good results have only been won after a good deal of bungling and 'muddling along.' (326)


. . . we cannot be blind to the fact that modern languages as wholes are more practical than ancient ones, and that the latter present so many more anomalies and irregularities than our present-day languages that we may feel inclined, if not to apply to them Shakespeare's line, "Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms," yet to think that the development has been from something nearer chaos to something nearer kosmos. (366)


Jespersen ɤΤ褦ˤƸѤĤ˻äΤࡼʥ (84--85) ϡJespersen 1928ǯ Novial ȤФطʤʬϤΤ褦ɾƤNovial ˤĤƤϡ#958. 19Ⱦ³Ƚи͹ ([2011-12-11-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ

बؤɤ夤ΤϤۤοͤξ⤤äߤΤǤꡤޤΤʤˤäȤŤ顤äȤ⿼򤪤ƤΰĤΤǤäȤΤϡθΨ֤ηкӤƤߤФ褤ȤͤǤ롥ˤĤŤΤϡʿŪˤϡǤդΰˤĤƤߤƤ⤢ȤˤĤƤߤƤ⡤鸫ȡθѲ¤Ԥθ¤꾡äƤΤȤͤǤ롽ϡäȤŪ˳ǧƤȾΤ뤽Τ褦ʡֿפȤƼΤ褦ʤΤ󤷤Ƥ롥ʤŪȤñ㲽뤳ȡɽǽͤû̡ʬŪĤޤŪ¤ȯãμͳʥˤ֤ε§ζŪʿ̴ˤǤ롥ʡظο⡤ä˱Ѹȹ礷ơ١ˡޥƥͤߤȤ˸ƤȤäȤΤˤϤԤΤʤˤ桼ȥԥָΤ뤷Ȥ⸫ʤħ¤ȿФˡɥĤʸˡˤäƹƤäФȤƤϤäѤ襤äΤȹͤƸȡ¤˶ŪǼ襤ȤΤϡδʲϤޤäƤ˻ĺ˰֤ƤꡤˤϤĤͤ˷֤ȹ¤ѻˤǤ롤Ȥäʡָθס


ĤޤꡤJespersen ϡʤƾʤ餺ߤˤϤäƤָѲϴʾ֤δǤפȤѤйơѤǤФȤȤˤʤ롥ػŪˤ Jespersen ɾǤϤʤ
ˤҤ٤褦ˡJespersen ήθѤϡߤθؤǤϰŪ˼ƤʤˤĤơ#448. Vendryes ۩ָѲϿǤϤʤס ([2010-07-19-1]) ڤӡ#1382. ָѲϤѲǤס ([2013-02-07-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
른塦ࡼʥƣ θء١ҡ2001ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-01-18 Sat

#1727. /ju:/ ε [phonetics][diphthong][vowel][french][yod-dropping]

#841. yod-dropping ([2011-08-16-1]) ڤӡ#1562. Χߤ yod-dropping ([2013-08-06-1]) εǡ/juː/ /uː/ ѲƤ벻ߤβϤǤ /juː/ ϤĤɤΤ褦ȯΤ
Ĵ٤ƤߤȡȤƤϽѸΤȤ餷/juː/ ϡΩ /ɪʊ/ ܤ򵯤ƾ徺2첻 (rising diphthong) ȤʤäΤȹͤ뤬 /ɪʊ/ ΤϡѸˤ (1) /ɛʊ/ 1Ǥξ夲ͳ褹Τȡ(2) ե󥹸 /yː/ ִΤޤ /ɪʊ/ η³ˤΤȤ˶̤롥 (171, 291) ꡤñ򼨤

(1) beauty, dew, deuce, ewe, ewer, few, fewter (the rest for a lance), feud, hew, lewd, mew, neuter, newt, Newton, pew, pewter, sewer, shew, strew, spew, sleuth, shrew, sew (juice), shrewd, thew (custom)
(2) allude, accuse, ague, adieu, allusion, brew, blue, blew (pt.), bruise, brute, clew, chew, cube, conclude, confuse, cruel, confusion, crew, due, drew, duke, excuse, eschew, fruit, flute, fume, funeral, fluid, fuel, grew, glue, humor, hue, humility, issue, Jew, jewel, juice, June, July, jute, knew, lunatic, lute, leeward, lieu, luminous, minute, Mathew, mutilate, new, newel, pseudonym, puny, prune, prudent, plume, rude, rule, refute, refuse, ruin, rumour, refuse (n.), rue, ruth, resolution, ModE shugar (sugar), ModE shue (sue), ModE shure (sure), sinew, ModE shute (suit), salute, solution, tulip, truce, threw, true, truth, Tuesday, tunic, tune, u, use, union, usage, usuary, usurer, view, yew, youth; ModE aventure, aventurous, creature, measure, nature, virtue, fortune, rescue, nephew, multitude, Hebrew, eschew, deluge, curfew, Andrew, absolute, ambiguous, Bartholomew

/ɪʊ/ /juː/ ؤѲϡָƬǤ1560ǯϤޤ1640ǯˤϤʤ̤Ȥʤסp. 290ˡθɤ³18ˤϳΩ褦
ʤ/r/ ³ /juːr/ ϡƱͤѸ /ɪʊr/, /ɛʊr/ ͳ褷Τ褦ʸޤࡥcure, curate, curio, curious, curiosity, conjure, dure, endure, Europe, ewer, fury, figure, immure, jury, lure, luxurious, mature, measure, nature, natural, obscure, pure, purity, procure, plural, premature, secure, sure, surety sewer, your.
Ϣơ#199. <U> Ϥʤ /ju:/ ȯ뤫 ([2009-11-12-1]) ε⻲ȡȤ櫓 shew βֻȯãˤĤƤϡ#1415. shew show (1) ([2013-03-12-1]) 򻲾ȡ

סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ

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2014-01-17 Fri

#1726. ַ֡פʶ路 Ullmann ˤؤι [terminology][linguistics][morphology]

ؤ˷ (morphology) ȸƤФʬ뤬̾ʶ路ŬڤǤȻפäƤ롥ȤΤϡظˤƷ֤ȤѸϰۤʤ2Ĥΰ̣Ѥ뤫
1Ĥϡ嵭η䤽줬 (morpheme) άȤƤΡַ֡פǤ롥θؤǤϡ̾갷ñ̤礭ˤäƲ (phonology) (morphology) (syntax) ̤뤬2ܤñ̤Ȥơַ֡פ롥
⤦1Ĥϡ̣뤤ϵǽ֤ΤȤƤΡַ֡פǤ롥ϷȸƤ褤ΰ̣ˤƤϡǡǡ졤硤ᡤʸʸϤʤɤñ̤Ϥַ֡פĤȤˤʤ롥
Ρַ֡פκϡUllmann Ƥظɽ魯ޤˤƤϡäƤ롥ʲڥ (124) ˷ǺܤƤޤƸ롥

Ullmann's Linguistic Components

ǤϡȤ٥ϰ̣֤ΤȤͿƤ롥ΤΤˤϸȤ٥뤬ŽƤ롥ȤѸλȤܲƤ뤿ˡäȤˤߤ롥θؤιѸȤϡ#1110. Guiraud ˤؤι ([2012-05-11-1]) ˤ̤롥
ʤUllmann οޤǤ3ܤȤ̻֤ȶ֤̤Ƥꡤ̻֤֤ǵͿƤ롥Ūʸؤι⡤Ūɾ뤳ȤǤ롥

󡦥ڥ Ϻⳤ ϯ δ Ͳ ظء١ҡʸ˥ӡ1972ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2017-02-09-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-01-16 Thu

#1725. 2ĤθȤϲ (2) [sociolinguistics][variety]

#1721. 2ĤθȤϲ ([2014-01-12-1]) ³2Τˤߤͤ롥Meillet ϡθϤǤϤʤäθϡ뤤üԶƱΤΰռȤϤ顤롥ڥ (90) ˥ᥤΰʲΰѤ롥

ָο²طΤŪ¤Ǥ롥ǽθ줬äƤȤܤθ줬äƤȤȤΤ˴ޤޤ뤢ǡ䤨ä礿ƱθäƤȤȰջ֤ȤĤŤƤȤˡȤθϤޤθ줫ФΤǤȤġĤΤ褦ˤƱθ줫Ф٤Ƥθϡߤ˿²طˤ롥äƿ²طϡäѤñȤռ³뤳Ȥͳ褹ΤǤ롥


ϡӸؼԤ˼Ƥ븫Ȥ
#1721. Pisani ۩ָϤǤס ([2014-01-13-1]) ˤ褦ˡʣȤϤȤߤʤ Pisani θϡηϤΤΤˤͤˤͭȤǤϡüԤ䶦ƱΤ¸ߴǤ롥Meillet θϡüԤ䶦ƱΤȤΤȤ館Ǥ롥ƱäƤȤСƱäƤȤФüԤˤθŪϢ³ƱݾڤƤ롥Meillet ϡ֤üԤΤĵ°ռ˴ѤʤƤΤMeillet 餷ƼҲŪʲǤ롥
˴ؤ¤ Pisani Meillet θΩƤ뤬ξԤ˶̤Ƥ褦˻פΤϡ̾դ줿̤θϥեǤȤȤ㤨СܸܸȸƤФƤΤϡθŪʽħǤϤʤȤ͡ΰռǤ롥ѼϥեǤȤ⤤ˤĤƤϡ#415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿ޤϢơ#1358. ȤФˤȤϲˤ ([2013-01-14-1]) ⻲ȡ

󡦥ڥ Ϻⳤ ϯ δ Ͳ ظء١ҡʸ˥ӡ1972ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-01-15 Wed

#1724. Skeat ˤ2Ÿ [doublet][etymology][lexicology]

ε#1723. åץ꡼ˤ2Ÿ ([2014-01-14-1]) ˰³٤ Skeat θ츻ŵ (748--51) ˷ǺܤƤ2Ÿ (doublet) 褦ˡSkeat (748) 2ŸǤ褦

Doublets are words which, though apparently differing in form, are nevertheless, from an etymological point of view, one and the same, or only differ in some unimportant suffix. Thus aggrieve is from L. aggrauāre; whilst aggravate, though really from the pp. aggrauātus, is nevertheless used as a verb, precisely as aggrieve is used, though the senses of the words have been differentiated.


Ǥϡʲ645Ȥ2ŸǤ롥ʤʤܥ֥ˡֺ doubletץʡߤƤߤޤ

abbreviateabridge
abetbet
acajoucashew
adamantdiamond
adventureventure
advocateavouch, avow
aggrieveaggravate
aiteyot
alarmalarum
allocateallow
ameeremir, omrah
amiableamicable
anone
ancientensign
announceannunciate
antemmet
anthemantiphon
anticantique
appalpall
appeal (sb)peal
appearpeer
appraiseappreciate
apprenticeprentice
aptitudeattitude
arcarch
armyarmada
arrackrack, raki
asphodeldaffodil
assayessay
assembleassimilate
assessassize (vb)
assoilabsolve
attachattack
attiretire, tire
baleball
balmbalsam
bandbond
banjomandoline
barbbard
basebasis
bashawpasha
batonbatten
bawdbold
beadlebedell
beakerpitcher
beefcow
beldambelladonna
benchbank, bank
benisonbenediction
blameblaspheme
boilbile
bossbotch
boughbow
boundbourn
bowerbyre
bowlbull
boxpyx, bush
bravebravo
brevebrief
brotherfriar
brownbruin
buffbuffalo
cadencechance
caitiffcaptive
caldron, cauldronchaldron
calibercaliver
calumnychallenge
camerachamber
cancercanker
cannoncanon
caravanvan
cardchart, carte
casechase, cash
caskcasque
castigatechasten
catchchase
cattlechattels, capital
cavalierchevalier
cavalrychivalry
cessassess
chaisechair
chalkcalx
champaigncampaign
channelcanal, kennel
chantcant
chapitercapital
chargecark, cargo
chateaucastle
cheatescheat
check (sb)shah
chicorysuccory
chiefcape
chieftaincaptain
chirurgeonsurgeon
choirchorus, quire
cholercholera
chordcord
chuckshock, shog
churchkirk
cipherzero
cistchest
cithernguitar, gittern, kit
civechive
clauseclose (sb)
climateclime
coffercoffin
coincoign, quoin
colekail
collectcull, coil (vb)
collocatecouch
comfitconfect
commendcommand
commodorecommander
complacentcomplaisant
complete (vb)comply
compostcomposite
comprehendcomprise
computecount
conduct (sb)conduit
confoundconfuse
construeconstruct
conveyconvoy
coolgelid
corngrain
cornhorn
coronationcarnation
corralkraal
corsairhussar
costumecustom
cotcote
couple (vb)copulate
coyquiet, quit, quite
coycage
crapecrisp
creamchrism
creasecrest
crevicecrevasse
cribcratch
crimsoncarmine
cropcoup
crowdrote
cryptgrot
cudquid
cuequeue
curariwourali
curriclecurriculum
curtle-axecutlass
cyclewheel
dacedart, dare
daintydignity
damedam, donna, duenna
dandon, domino
dauphindolphin
deckthatch
defencefence
defendfend
delaydilate
delldale
demesnedomain
dentdint
deploydisplay, splay
depotdeposit (sb)
descrydescribe
desideratedesire (vb)
despitespite
deucetwo
devilishdiabolic
diedado
direct (vb)dress
dishdisc, desk, daïs
disportsport
distainstain
ditchdike
dittodictum
diurnaljournal
dogeduke
doitthwaite
doledeal (sb)
dominiondungeon
doom-dom (suffix)
dragondragoon
dropsyhydropsy
duedebt
dunedown
eatableedible
éclatslate
elfoaf, ouphe
éliteelect
emeraldsmaragdus
emerodshemorrhoids
employimply, implicate
endowendue, indue
enginegin
entireinteger
enviousinvidious
escapescape
eschewshy (vb)
escutcheonscutcheon
especialspecial
espyspy
esquiresquire
establishstablish
estatestate, status
estimateesteem
estopstop
estreatextract
etiquetteticket
exampleensample, sample
exemplarsampler
extraneousstrange
fabricforge (sb)
factfeat
facultyfacility
fanvan
fancyfantasy, phantasy
fashionfaction
fatvat
fauteuilfaldstool
fealtyfidelity
feeblefoible
fellpell
fester (sb)fistula
feudfief, fee
feverfewfebrifuge
fiddleviol
fifepipe, peep
finchspink
finitefine
fitchvetch
flagflake, flaw
flowerflour
flushflux
foamspume
fontfount
forcefarce
foremostprime
fosterforester
fragilefrail
frayaffray
frofrom
frounceflounce
fungussponge
furlfardel
gabblejabber
gadged
gaffergrandfather
gagewage
gambadogambol
gamegammon
gaoljail
garthyard
geargarb
genteelgentle, gentile
genuskin
germgermen
gigjig
ginjuniper
girdgride
girdlegirth
glamourgramarye
graincorn
granarygarner
grece, grisegrade
guarantee (sb)warranty
guardward
guardianwarden
guesthost
guilewile
guisewise
gulletgully
gustgusto
guyguide (sb)
gypsyEgyptian
hackbutarquebus
halewhole
hamperhanaper
haranguering, rank, rink
hash (vb)hatch
hatchmentachievement
hautboyoboe
heaphope
hecklehackle, hatchel
hemi-semi-
henthint
historystory
hockhough
hoopwhoop
hospitalhostel, hotel, spital, spittle
hubhob
humanhumane
hyacinthjacinth
hydraotter
hyper-super-
hypo-sub-
illuminelimn
inaptinept
inchounce
inditeindict
influenceinfluenza
innocuousinnoxious
invitevie
invokeinvocate
iotajot
isolateinsulate
jaggerysugar
jealouszealous
jinngenie
jointjunta, junto
jointurejuncture
jutjet
juttyjetty
ketchcatch
labellapel, lappet
laclake
lacelasso
lairleaguer
lakeloch, lough
lateenLatin
launch, lanchlance (vb)
lealloyal, legal
lectionlesson
libglib
lieulocus
limblimbo
limbeckalembic
lineallinear
liquorliqueur
listlust
loadlode
lobbylodge
locustlobster
lonealone
losellorel
lurchlurk
madammadonna
majormayor
malemasculine
maledictionmalison
mandatemaundy
manglemangonel
manœuvremanure
marchmark, marque
marginmargent, marge
marishmorass
maulmall
mauvemallow
maximmaximum
mazermazzard
meanmesne, mizen
memorymemoir
mentormonitor
metalmettle
miltmilk
minimminimum
minstermonastery
mintmoney
mistermaster
mobmobile, movable
modemood
mohairmoire
momentmomentum, movement
monstermuster
morrowmorn
moslemmussulman
mouldmodule
munnionmullion
musketmosquito
naivenative
nakednude
namenoun
natronnitre
naught, noughtnot
nauseanoise
neatnet
niaseyas
noyaunewel
obedienceobeisance
octaveutas
ofoff
onionunion
orationorison
ordinanceordnance
orpimentorpine
ospreyossifrage
ottoattar
ouchnouch
outerutter
overplussurplus
paddlespatula
paddockpark
pain (vb)pine
paladinpalatine
palepallid, fallow
palettepallet
paperpapyrus
paradeparry
paradiseparvis
paralysispalsy
paroleparable, parle, palaver
parsonperson
passpace
pastelpastille
pastypatty
pateplate
patronpattern
pausepose
pawnpane, vane
paynimpaganism
peerappear
peisepoise
pelissepilch
pellitoryparitory
penancepenitence
peregrinepilgrim
perukeperiwig, wig
pewterspelter
phantasmphantom
piazzaplace
pickpeck, pitch (vb)
picketpiquet
pietypity
pigmentpimento
pikepeak, pick (sb), pique (sb), spike
pippinpip
pistilpestle
pistolpistole
plaintiffplaintive
plaitpleat, plight
planplain, plane, llano
plateauplatter
plumprune
poignantpungent
pointpunt
poisonpotion
pokepouch
polepale, pawl
pomade, pommadepomatum
pomppump
poorpauper
popepapa
porchportico
posypoesy
potentpuissant
poultpullet
pouncepunch
pouncepumice
poundpond
poundpun (vb)
powerposse
praiseprice
preachpredicate
premierprimero
priestpresbyter
privateprivy
probe (sb)proof
proctorprocurator
prolongpurloin
prosecutepursue
providepurvey
providentprudent
punchpunish
punypuisne
purlprofile
purposepropose
purviewproviso
quarternquadroon
queenquean
racemeraisin
rackwrack, wreck
radixradish, race, root, wort
raidroad
railrally
raiserear
rampromp
ransomredemption
rapineravine, raven
raseraze
ratioration, reason
rayradius
rayahryot
rear-wardrear-guard
reaverob
reconnaissancerecognisance
regalroyal, real
relicrelique
renegaderunagate
renewrenovate
reprievereprove
residueresiduum
respectrespite
revengerevindicate
rewardregard
rhomb, rhombusrumb
ridgerig
rodrood
rondeauroundel
roteroute, rout, rut
roundrotund
rouserow
roverrobber
sacksac
sacristansexton
sawsaga
saxifragesassafras
scabbyshabby
scaleshale
scandalslander
scar, scaurshare
scarfscrip, scrap
scattershatter
schoolshoal, scull
scot(free)shot
screenshriek
screedshred
screwshrew
scurscour
scuttleskillet
sect, sept, setsuite, suit
sennetsignet
separatesever
sequinsicca
sergeant, serjeantservant
settlesell, saddle
shammychamois
sharksearch
shawm, shalmhaulm
sheaveshive
shedshade
shirtskirt
shrubsherbet, syrup
shufflescuffle
sicker, sikersecure, sure
sinesinus
sir, siresenior, seignior, señor, signor
size, sizeassise
skewershiver
skiffship
skirmishscrimmage, scaramouch
slabberslaver
sleightsloid
sleuthslot
slobberslubber
sloopshallop
snivelsnuffle
snubsnuff
soilsole, sole
sopranosovereign
soughsurf
soupsup
sousesauce
spadespade
speciesspice
spellspill
spenddispend
spiritsprite, spright
spoorspur
spraysprig, asparagus
spritsprout (sb)
sprout (vb)spout
spryspark
squallsqueal
squinancyquinsy
squiresquare
stanktank
stavestaff
steerTaurus
stilldistil
stocktuck
stovestew (sb)
straitstrict
strapstrop
stressdistress
superficiessurface
supersedesurcease
suppliantsupplicant
sweepswoop
tabortambour
tachetack
taintattaint
tampertemper
tarpaulingtar
tasktax
taunttempt, tent
tawnytenny
teasetose
teetaw
teindtithe, tenth
tendtender
tensetoise
terceltassel
threadthrid
thrill, thirldrill
tinetooth
tippettape
titteat
titletittle
totoo
tontun
tonetune
tourturn
towtug
towndown
tracktrick
tracttrait
traditiontreason
travailtravel
trebletriple
trifletruffle
tripodtrivet
triumphtrump
trothtruth
tucktug
tucktouch
tulipturban
tweaktwitch
umbelumbrella
unityunit
ureopera
vadefade
vairvarious
valetvarlet
vantageadvantage
vastwaste
vawardvanguard
vealwether
veldtfield
veneerfurnish
venew, veneyvenue
verbword
vermeilvermillion
vertexvortex
vervainverbena
viaticumvoyage
viperwyvern, wivern
visorvizard
vizier, visieralguazil
vocalvowel
wainwagon, waggon
waleweal
wattlewallet
weetwit
whirlwarble
wightwhit
woldweald
yelpyap


Skeat, Walter William, ed. An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. 4th ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910. 1st ed. 1879--82. 2nd ed. 1883.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2014-01-14 Tue

#1723. åץ꡼ˤ2Ÿ [doublet][etymology][lexicology]

ܥ֥Ǥ2Ÿ (doublet) ˴ؤ뵭¿񤤤ƤäƤǤ롥åץ꡼θ츻ŵδˡ2Ÿʤ3Ÿʾ¿ŸˤΥꥹȤܤäƤΤǡʲžܤ롥ˡåץ꡼ (708) ˤ2Ÿ򼨤Ƥ

ŸȤϡƱ츻θդۤʤäϩФƱѸˤʤäȤθաʤ뤤ϤȤΰˤ̣롥Ϥ˿Τǡθ츻ϩ򤿤ɤȻפС٤ OED ʡإåեɱѸ缭ŵ١ˤǸ뤳ȤǤŸ줫顤Ѹ˭ȡդˤĤƤΤޤޤʶ̣äɤ߼뤳ȤǤ롥Ÿˤϡ츻ƱǤʤ顤ΰ̣ϸߤ礤˰ۤʤΤ롥


Ǥϡʲ126Ȥ2ŸǤ롥

abbreviate άabridge ṳ̂
acute äcute ʤ襤ague ʷ㤷Ǯ۰
adamant ʹľʡdiamond ʥɡ
adjutant ʽΡaid ʼ
aggravate ʤ˰aggrieve ᤷޤ
aim esteem ºŤestimate ɾ
allocate ʳƤallow ֤
alloy ʹally Ʊ
an ʰĤΡ괧one ʰĤΡ
antic ʤäʤantique ʸŽ
appreciate ʹ⤯ɾappraise ʤĤapprize ºŤ
aptitude Ŭattitude ١
army ʷarmada ʴ
asphodel ʡԻեdaffodil ʥåѥ
assemble ʽ礵assimilate ʾòۼ
astound ʶŷastonish ʶästun Ȥ
attach Žդattack ʹ⤹
band ʥХɡbond ʤʡ
banjo ʥХ󥸥硼mandolin ʥޥɥ
bark ʥСbarge ʿ
beaker ʥӡpitcher ʥԥå㡼
beam ¡boom ʡڳ
belly ʢbellows ʤդ
benison ʽʡεbenediction ʽʡ
blame 񤹤blaspheme
block 礭ʲplug
book ܡbuck(wheat) ʥСbeech ʥ֥ʡ
boulevard ʹƻbulwark ݡ
brother ʷfriar ȭƻΡ
cadet ʻŴcad ʰΰˡ
cadence ҡchance ʶ
cage Ļcave ƶ
calumny challenge ĩ
cancel ʼächancel ʡԶƲΡء
cant ʵŪⶵchant ʱӾ
captain ʼΡchieftain ʡԻ±ʤɤΡդ
cavalry ʵʼchivalry ʵƻ
cell ʡȿΡմȿhall ʥۡ
charge ô롤᤹cargo ١
chariot ʡϤǰ֡cart ʲϼ֡
chattel ʡˡΧưcattle ܵcapital ʻܡ
check ˻ߤ롤ڥ۲shah ʥ񲦡
costume custom ʴ
crate ʤ勞Ȣhurdle ʥϡɥ
daft ʤФʡdeft ʴѤʡ
dainty ʾʤʡdignity ʰҸ
danger ʴdominion ʻ۸
dauphin ʡˡۡԥե󥹤Ρղҡdolphin ʥ륫
deck ʥǥåthatch ʤ
defeatdefect ʷ١
depot ־deposit
devilish ʰΤ褦ʡdiabolical ʼٰʡ
diaper ¿̤˾ͤˤjasper ˶̡
disc ʥ쥳ɡdiscus ʱסdish ʻdais ʱšdesk ʴ
ditto Ʊdictum ʸ򡤶
employ ʸۤimply ʰŤ˰̣implicate ʰŤ˼
ensign ʷinsignia ʵϡ
etiquette ʥåȡticket
extraneous ʳΡstrange ʴ̯ʡ
fabric ʿʪforge
fact ʻ¡feat ʰζȡ
faculty ʺǽfacility ưפ
fashion ʥեåfaction ȶ
feeble ʼ夤foible ʡ԰ȤΤռ
flame ʱphlegm
flask ʥե饹fiasco ʴʼԡ
flour ʾʴflower ʲ֡
fungus ʶsponge ʳʡ
genteel ʾʤ֤ägentle ͥgentile ʰ۶̤Ρjaunty ۵ʡ
glamour ̥Ūʡgrammar ʸˡ
guarantee ݾڡwarranty ݾڡ¡
hale ʷʡwhole ΤΡ
inch ʥounce ʥ󥹡
isolation ʸΩinsulation ʳΥ
jay ʥgay ƱΡʡ
kennel ʹ¡channel ʳcanal ʱϡ
kin ʷgenus ʡʬΡ°
lace Ҥlasso ꤲء
listen İlurk Ԥ
lobby ʥӡlodge ʻ
locust ʥХålobster ʥ
maneuver ʺưmanure
monetary ̲ߤΡmonitory ʷٹΡ
monster ʲʪmuster ʾ
musket ʥޥåȽơmosquito ʲ
naive ñʡnative ޤ줿Ρ
onion ʥޥͥunion ʷ
paddock ʾϡpark ʸ
parable ʶáparabola ʪparole ʼͱͽparley Ƥġpalaver ʾ̡
parson ʶһաperson ʿ͡
particle ʬҡparcel ʾ
patron ʸԡpattern ͡
piazza ʡԥꥢԻԤΡչϩplace ʾplaza ʡʥڥԻԤʤɤΡ˹
poignant ڤʡpungent ʿɤĤʡ
poison potion ʡDZդΡհ
poor Ϥpauper ʸ𿩡
pope ʥ޶ġpapa ʥѥѡ
praise ʤۤprice ʲʡ
quiet Ťʡquit ʤquite ʤäcoy ⵤʡ
raid ʽroad ƻϩ
ransom ʿredemption 㤤ᤷ
ratio Ψration ʳơreason ͳ
respect ºɤrespite ʡԻŻʤɤΡվٻߡ
restrain restrict ¤
rover ϲԡrobber ť
saliva ñաslime ʤͤڡ̤
scandal ѿslander
scourge ʤŷȳexcoriate Ϥ
scout ͸auscultate İǤ
secure ʰʡsure ʼäơ
sergeant ʷservant ʻѿ͡
sovereign ʼ縢ԡsoprano ʥץΡ
stack ʴλstake ʹsteak ʥơstock ߤ
supervisor ʴԡsurveyor ¬̼ԡ
tamper ʴĤtemper ʵ
triumph ʾtrump ʥȥס
tulip ʥ塼åסturban ʥХ
twodeuce ʥ塼
utter ʸ˽Фouter ʳ¦Ρ
valet ʶvarlet ʽԡ
vast ʹʡwaste ʹѤ
veneer ʥ٥˥furnish ʲȶ
verb ưword ʸա
whirl 󤹤warble ʤ
yelp ʤ⤤夲yap ʥ󥭥ʤΩƤ
zero ʥcipher ʰŹ


硼 T. åץ꡼ ƻ ϻ إåץ꡼Ѹ츻ŵ١罤ۡ2009ǯ

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2014-01-13 Mon

#1722. Pisani ۩ָϤǤ [wave_theory][family_tree][language_change][historiography][neolinguistics]

#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1]) #1579. ָϿʪǤפȡ ([2013-08-23-1]) εۤǡָϡǤפȤͻȤ⤤ϡ#449. Vendryes ۩ָǤס ([2010-07-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Vendryes Ȥϰۤʤ̣ǸʤȤϡˤȤƤؼԤΤǾҲ𤷤ε#1721. 2ĤθȤϲ ([2014-01-12-1]) Ƴ Pisani Ǥ롥
Pisani ϡǥǤѾȾǥǤѤȤΤͭյʶ̤ǧ᤺ξԤŪ׿ (créations) Ȥ礷褦Ȥζ̤ȤäѤ餦ȤڤȤΥ᡼礷ʥ᡼Ȥ (fleuve) ⤫Ǥήɤʣ˹ήʬ򷫤֤֤˱äƤҤή³ϤǤ롥

À vrai dire, le terme de parenté, avec les images qu'il reveille, porte à une vision erronée comme l'autre, qui y est connexée, de l'arbre généalogique. Une image beaucoup plus correspondante à la réalité des faits linguistiques pourrait être suggérée par un système hydrique compliqué: un fleuve qui rassemble l'eau de torrents et ruisseaux, à un certain moment se mêle avec un autre fleuve, puis se bifurque, chacun des deux bras continue à son tour à se mêler avec d'autres cours d'eau, peut-être aussi avec un ou plusieurs dérivés de son compagnon, il se forme des lacs dont de nouveaux fleuves se départent, et ainsi de suite. (13)


ϤʬʬϡϤϤȸƤФ뤬ϤϤλϤޤ꤬ɤʤΤ̤οϤϤȤζϤɤʤΤȤ䤤뤳ȤϤǤʤƱȤϤȤ줿ˤ⤤롥ȤʣʰϤΤʤǡɤʬޥϤȸƤФΤɤʬѸȸƤФΤ뤳ȤϤǤʤǤ뤳ȤȤС褽ʬصŪˤΥ٥Ž뤳Ȥ餤Τ褦˹ͤȡѸ˵ҤȤΤ⡤ϩΤ褦ʻήΤʤ顤ڤɮǤɤꡤ֤ϤѸʻˡˤǤפȸäƤȤˤʤ롥

Pisani, Vittore. "Parenté linguistique." Lingua 3 (1952): 3--16.

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2014-01-12 Sun

#1721. 2ĤθȤϲ [wave_theory][family_tree][language_change][romancisation]

2ĤθΤˤߤȤطȤΤϡäؤƤΤ2֤δطİǥȤŪǥ (family_tree) Ⱦǥ (wave_theory) 󵯤Ƥ2ĤΥǥδطΤоݤȤƤꡤޤξԤ礷ǥϺ³Ƥ롥##369,371,999,1118,1236,1302,1303,1313,1314 ۤŪǶǤϡ#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1]) #1397. ³ʿեǥ ([2013-02-22-1]) Ǥ˴Ϣ򰷤äƤϥꥢθؼ Pisani ʸ򻲾ȤƹͤƤߤ褦
Pisani ˤȤäơ2ĤθΤ (parenté) Ȥϡ̤ƤŪǤ¿ˤäƷޤ롥

. . . à chaque moment nous nous trouvons en présence d'une langue nouvelle constituée par la confluence et le mélange toujours divers d'éléments de provenance diverse dans les innombrables créations des individus parlants; et parenté linguistique n'est autre chose que la communauté d'éléments que l'on constate ainsi entre langue et langue. (14)


ñʸΤ褦ǥˤȾǥˤ⤢ƸڤʤտŪʸ󤷤ʤΤǤ롥ǥ˽СܤϡΩʳбܤŪȯŸΤȤ롥ǡȾǥ˽СܤϡܤбܤڤꤿΤǤȤ롥ξˤ⡤θܤϴ¸бܤ˲餫ΰ̣ǡֻƤפˤϰ㤤ʤɤΥǥˤΤֻۤƤפΤŪ˷뤳ȤϤǤʤʤСֻƤٹ礤¬ǡŪʴطŻ뤷Ƥ褤ͳʤСդȾŪʴطͥƤ褤ͳʤȤȤˤʤ롥
ѸξͤƤߤȡŪˤϷǥ˽äƥޥɤ°Ȥ뤬ä˸äΥޥ󥹸첽Ѹʹߤ˷㤷äΤǡȾǥ˽äơåɤˤ­ƧƤȤ롥ĤޤꡤιԤϤäϡ§ȤƤϷǥιͤͥȤߤʤơŪ˥ޥɤ°ȾθȾǥιͤƳơŪ˥åŪǤ⤢ȾƤΤǤ롥ѸξˤϡŪ˭٤ʸĤäƤꡤˤѤλŪط⤢٤Ϥ狼äƤΤǡ嵭̤ͥǤȤ館ΤǤȤ䤹Ūʾ󤬤ۤȤʤˤơȲ餫٤ǻƤȤ¬ˤϡǥȤ뤳ȤǤʤȾǥȤ뤳ȤǤʤʡ#371. ƶɬ̤Ǥʤ ([2010-05-03-1]) 򻲾ȡˡܤˤΤϡ򼨤ܤΤߤǤ롥
Pisani ϡSchuchardt ˤäƿƻҴطȼѴطΤ˰̣̤ǧ᤺٤ƤθϺ (Mischsprachen) ǤȤΩΩäơ2֤褦ȤΤǤʴϢơ#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤ󤸤ѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) ⻲ȡˡ2֤θܤͳϡƻҴط⤷ʤѴط⤷ʤˤ褽줾θˤơΤ˲餫θŪ׿ߤ̤äƤΥƤꤷƤ˰㤤ʤפʤΤϸŪ׿ΤߤǤꡤPisani ϡ֤줾줬ͭŸȤġ̡βʲΤʤˤǧʤäפΤǤʥڥp. 89ˡ

Pisani, Vittore. "Parenté linguistique." Lingua 3 (1952): 3--16.
󡦥ڥ Ϻⳤ ϯ δ Ͳ ظء١ҡʸ˥ӡ1972ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2014-01-16-1] [2014-01-13-1]

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2014-01-11 Sat

#1720. Shakespeare ֤ [shakespeare][spelling]

Ѹֻˤܥ֥Ǥ͡˰äƤŪˤϤ٤Ƥñ˰֤꤬ǧȤäƤǤϤʤShakespeare Ȥ⡤㳰ǤϤʤߤǤϡѸɤ߼񤭼ϡȤֻ˴ƤǤ뤬Ѹ˾ǧ֤70ʾ⤢롥
ιñǡshake + spear ʤפۤɤΰ̣Ǥ롥13̤뤳ȤΤǤŪǤ̾Ǥꡤ70ʾŪ֤Τʤˤϡ1248ǯʸڤ Shakespere ΤۤShaksper, Chacsper, Schakespere, Scakespeire, Saksper ʤɤޤޤ롥
David Kathman ȤԤȤˤȡ William Shakespeare (1564--1616) ȤƤϡ¸ΤΤȤơ25ΰ֤꤬ǧ줿Ȥ342ĤΤ6ʾ Shakespeare Shake-speare äȤ顤ߤֻŪˤ (?) ȤäƤ褤⤷ʤ
Crystal and Crystal (108) ˵󤲤Ƥ롤25ֻʲ󤷤褦

Schaksp, Shackespeare, Shackespere, Shackspeare, Shackspere, Shagspere, Shakespe, Shakespear, Shakespeare, Shake-speare, Shakespere, Shakespheare, Shakp, Shakspe?, Shakspear, Shakspeare, Shak-speare, Shaksper, Shakspere, Shaxberd, Shaxpeare, Shaxper, Shaxpere, Shaxspere, Shexpere


ʤȤ Shakespeare ˤ뼫6ĤäƤ뤬Τʤ˼5ֻ (Crystal 131) Shakp (1612ǯBelott-Mountjoy Deposition), Shakspe(r) (1613ǯGatehouse Conveyance), Shaksper (1613ǯGatehouse Mortgage), Shakspere (1616ǯfirst and second sheet of will), Shakspeare (1616ǯthird sheet of will) ⤷ȤˡΤʤ˸ߤɸŪֻϤʤ
Shakespeare λˤϡֻɸಽ塹ȿʹä夷ȤޤǤˤϤ⤦ǯɬפä17ȾФˤϤ褽夷궯ǤʴפǤޤǤˤ18ȾФ Johnson μԤͤФʤʤäȤ櫓ǤϤʤ񤭤ǤϡֻɤϤޤ㤷ä
ߤ Shakespeare ֻϡͤˤȤäƤ⽽ʬ§Ūֻ˸뤬¿ְ㤨ȤѤɬפϤʤShakespeare ȤȤäƤʤäǽϤ뤷ĤƤϤֻ⤢äΤȷڤήФ褤ʤ⤷ʤˤΤǡ

Crystal, David and Ben Crystal. The Shakespeare Miscellany. Woodstock & New York: The Overlook Press, 2005.

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2014-01-10 Fri

#1719. Scotland ˤѸ [history][scottish_english][scots][ogham]

#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1]) ȡ#1718. Wales ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-09-1]) ³åȥɤαѸˤ򳵴Ѥ褦 (Fennell 191--95)
åȥˤϥԥȿ (the Picts) ȸƤФ̱²ǤԥȿͤäΤʤΤȷϤθäƤΤ뤤äƤΤ¿ʸ (ogham) Ȥäʸ񤤤ƤȤΤƤ롥
ɿ֥ͤƥάȤϳΤǤ롥ϥ޿ͤ Scoti ȸƤФ줿ԥȿͤ Scoti ͻ礷ä Alba 񤷤β򡤥󥰥ͤ Scotia ȸƤ줬 Scotland Ȥ̾εǤ롥Alba ϡ9ȾˤϤȤDun Eideann (Edinburgh) ޤ Tweed ˤޤǤ Lothian Ӥ۲ˤˤơ Northumbria αѸܤ뤳Ȥˤʤä11ȾüԤǤä Malcolm II (953?--1034) Macbeth (?--1057) ϥ󥰥ͤȤ襤˾ʹߡĹ֡Northumbria Scotland ȷӤĤ褦ˤʤä
Macbeth 򻦳 Malcolm III (1031?--93) ϡ򥤥󥰥˶岽褦Ȥη̤ȤơåȥɲDZѸ줬ҿ뤳ȤȤʤääơåȥɤǤ餫Ѹ줬岽ξħȤߤʤƤΤǤ롥ޤ William ˤ밵κǡ¿Υ󥰥ɿͤåȥɤƨƤˡαѸüԿ
14ʹߡåȥɤ Balliol, Bruce, Stewart ȤϤ Lowland ˴פ֤Ƥˡ濴ϤϤޤǤΥä Highland Ѹǻ Lowland ؤȰư14ȾˤϡLowland αѸʸظȤƲֺ餭ϰ̤ϳμ¤ʤΤȤʤäƤ15ȾˤϡαѸ 󥰥ɤˤ Inglis ȤϰۤʤѼȤ Scottis ȸƤФ褦ˤʤä䤳Ȥˡˤ Lowland αѸüԤϡHighland Υؤ "Scottish" ȸƤǤΤǤ롥Ǥ⡤åȥɤΥǥƥƥѸä Lowland ˰ܤäȤƤ롥
Scottisʤߤ Older Scots ȸƤФ뤳Ѽϡιν񤭸ɸѼȤϤʤʤä1516ˤơOlder Scots ˤʸؤϡRobert Henryson, William Dunbar, Gavin Douglas, Sir David Lyndsay ʤɤˤ겫ޤ񤭸ɸϰ̤ϥ󥰥ȯ Chancery English ˴ŤѼ줿ͳȤƤϤĤ뤬(1) Henryson Dunbar ʤɤνɽѸ줬 Chaucer αѸǥȤƤꡤ󥰥ɤؤܶ򼨤Ƥȡ(2) Older Scots ϶θȤʤۤɤޤǤˤϰҿʤäȡ(3) ܤʤɤˤꥤ󥰥ɤαѸ줬Ǥ˥åȥǽвäƤȡ(4) Older Scots ʤäȤʤɤͿƤ
ͳϡ1513ǯ˥åȥɤ Flodden 襤ǥ󥰥ɷ餱³ƽפȤ줿Ȥ׼Ԥϥ󥰥ɤαѸǿĹ򤷡ɤΤǤ롥ޤ1603ǯ James VI 󥰥ɲ James I Ȥ¨̤the Union of Crowns ȡåȥɲȤˤ Scots λٱ䤨뤳ȤȤʤä1707ǯ the Union of Parliaments ⤽η֤򤫤18ϡScots λѤ񤵤ޤǤˤʤä
åȥɿͤδ֤ο̩ʲäˤƤϡScots ĤäθȤƤ̮̿ݤ³18Ⱦ Robert Fergusson (1750--74), Robert Burns (1759--96), Sir Walter Scott (1771--1832) ʤɤʸͤڽФScots ˤϤĤʤʤä
20ˤϡScottish National Dictionary A Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue Linguistic Atlas of Scotland ʤɡScots μ䤽¾λͽǤ褦ˤʤꡤScots λߤ˹׸Ƥ褦˸뤬ɤʤ뤫Ϥ狼ʤ1999ǯ˥åȥɤ3֤˵IJ褷ư衤Ụ̄礤դ Scots 䤬ǮŪȤʤäƤ롥

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.

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2014-01-09 Thu

#1718. Wales ˤѸ [history][welsh][ireland]

#1715. IrelandˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1]) ˰³Fennell (195--97) ꥦ륺ˤѸˤάҤ롥
Pembrokeshire ϡHenry I λ1108ǯˡѸä󥰥ɡեɥ̱ͤξڵˡϰˤϱѸ -ton ̾¿The Gower Peninsula λ夫Ѹ첽Ƥϰ¾Υ륺ϰ褫ڤΥˤǤ褦
̥륺ǤϡåȥɤƱͤļԻԤߤ졤ԻԤ濴˱Ѹä̱פ侦ȤĤԻϱѸ졤¼ϥ륺ȤʬۤϡˤϢʤ³
16 Tudor īϥ륺ʻäƤꡤάΰĤȤơԻθǤѸθҤˡΧˤݤη̡Ѹ϶θȤƹԤϤ뤳ȤˤʤäǤ礭ʾ׷ϡ1536ǯ1542ǯ Acts of Union Υ󥰥ɤȤϢˤꡤˡΧˤѸѤ륺ǵ̳Ť졤Elizabeth I ˤƤϱѸؤ֤ȤεˤĤʤäطǤϡ1563ǯҤ륺졤ϥ륺ݻ˹׸ȿ̥륺Ф뤳Ȥˤʤä
17--18̤ơ륺αѸ첽Ͻ˿ʹԤƤä®٤ääΤϡĿͤΥХ󥬥뤳ΤΡѸ춦ƱΤȥ륺춦ƱΤ礦ȤʤäǤ롥19ϻȳ̿ȶˡ (1881) θ̤ǡϫƯԳѸäѸΰҿޤǥ륺ϱ̾夻褦ˤʤäλ塤вԤϫƯԤ륺ؤäƤνпϤϥ륺äΤΡ˥󥰥ɤѤä1901ǯޤǤˤϡ󥰥ɽпȼԤϤ2/3ʾȤʤäƤȤˤꡤαѸοƩȥ륺οबʹԤ륺ˤƱѸΥΥ󥬥1921ǯ63%1981ǯ81%ȿܤߤǤϥΥ󥬥Υ륺üԤϤʤ
ߡ륺αưʤƤꡤBBCʸؤΤȤƥ륺줬Ѥ뵡Ϥ뤬ɤʤΤ̤οǤ롥

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.

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2014-01-08 Wed

#1717. dual-source κ [pidgin][creole][creoloid][contact]

2Ĥθ줬Ȥˤϡ¿Υԥ䥯쥪줬Ǥ褦ˡ줫θι׸Ψ˹⤯ʤ롥ظ (superstrate) ö (lexifier) ȤѸ졤뤤ϱѸ١ΥԥȤɽ褦ˡ̾Ϥθ줬Ǥ뤫餫Ǥ롥ޤʥǤϡۤȾ˺äơɤ餬礿줬ȽȤʤ "dual-source" Ȥ٤줬롥#1683. Pitkern ([2013-12-05-1]) ϡˤޤ dual-source creole ȤƵ󤲤ۤˡdual-source pidgin dual-source creoloid ȤߤʤȤΤǤ줬¸ߤ (Trudgill, Sociolinguistics 182--83)
1917ǯޤǥΥ륦ǸפθȤäƤ Russenorsk ϡdual-source pidgin ȹͤ롥Russenorsk ϥȥΥ륦θǤۤȾ˺ǡñ㲽ηϤͭƤθϡ1917ǯ˥̿ˤäξθפǤѤƤäȥΥ륦üԤΤߤʤ餺߸졤եɸ졤졤ɥĸ졤ѸüԤˤѤ졤lingua franca ȤƵǽƤRussenorsk ϡdual-source pidgin Ǥ뤳Ȥ˲ä̱ϤȤǤϤʤפΤȯã衼åѸɤΥԥȤƤͭ¸ߤǤ롥Russenorsk ϡ㤨мΤ褦Ѥ줿 (Trudgill, Glossary 114)

Kak ju vil skaffom ja drikke te, davaj på sjib tvoja ligge ne jes på slipom.
'If you will eat and drink tea, please on ship your lie down and on sleep'


ʥ˵ߤǤϥꥫ North Dakota ΰϰäƤ Michif (or Metsif or Métis) ϡdual-source creoloid Ǥcreoloid ˤĤƤϡ#1681. Ѹ "creole" ǤϤʤ "creoloid" ([2013-12-03-1]) 򻲾ȡˡȤȤʤä2Ĥθϡե󥹸轻̱ Algonquian ²θ Cree Ǥ롥ե󥹸 "mixed" Michif ̾ϡ19˥ʥפ̤ƥե󥹸ä Cree äȤ줷̱²̾ˤʤäƤꡤϢˮܤˤް񹳤ˤФƤMichif ϸŪˤϤۤñ㲽Ƥ餺̾ϥե󥹸ħǤΰפ򼨤ư Cree ʣʷħݻƤ (Trudgill, Sociolinguistics 183--84) üԿʤ¸³֤ޤƤ轻̱1ĤǤ롥
Michif Ʊͤ2줬ͻ礷Ƥ븽ݤ language intertwining ȸƤФ졤˵¾ˤ Copper Island Aleut ȸƤФ줬⤦1ĤȤ (Trudgill, Glossary 28) ϡEskimo-Aleut ² Aleut ȥκǡüԤ2,000ͤۤɤȤ롥ä̾η Aleut ͳ褹뤬ưηǤȤ intertwining ֤򼨤

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

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2014-01-07 Tue

#1716. shew show (3) [spelling][corpus][clmet][representativeness]

#1415. shew show (1) ([2013-03-12-1]) ȡ#1416. shew show (2) ([2013-03-13-1]) ǰä򡤡#1637. CLMET3.0 between betwixt ʬۤĴ ([2013-10-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 The Corpus of Late Modern English Texts, version 3.0 (CLMET3.0) ˤˬŪˤϡƱդѥ "\bshow(s|n|ed|ing)?_VB" "\bshew(s|n|ed|ing)?_VB" Ǹơ3ʬȤٿ٤ʲη̤Ф


shew show
1710--17803351,54510,480,431
1780--18501593,10011,285,587
1850--1920925,11812,620,207


#1416. shew show (2) ([2013-03-13-1]) Ѥ PPCMBE (Penn Parsed Corpus of Modern British English) 100Υѥ CLMET3.0 3,400ε祳ѥǤ롥ۤƱ򥫥СƤΤӤˤԹ礬褤Ʊͤ˺ show shew ¤֤ƤͻҤ뤬礭ۤʤΤϡ1710--1780ǯ1ˤƤǤ show Ū˾äƤ뤳ȤǤ롥򿮤ʤСѸޤǤˡǤ show ϾԤ褷ƤȤȤˤʤ롥PPCMBE Ǥ shew ϸѸˡͥƱפȿܤCLMET3.0 Ǥϡ餫äפȿܤƤ롥2ˤ錄̻ŪʻξѥȤ绨Ĥˤϻ褦ʷ򼨤ȤϤΤΡ18ζŪʬۤˤĤƤξѥμͤκ礭褦˻פ롥ˤϡ#1280. ѥɽ ([2012-10-28-1]) Ȥ꤬ؤäƤǤꡤŤʲ᤬뤳Ȥˤʤ
ʤ1Ĥʸ̮ shew show ȤѤƤ붽̣⤤Ĥä3Τߵ󤲤褦

Why, you have shewn your wit upon the subject, and I mean to show your courage;
Mr. Wright, as well as Nadin, professed they were perfectly satisfied of this, and appeared to shew to me all the polite attention that they were capable of showing.
Assuredly I did not show him the face which I shewed Folderico.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-10-15-1] [2014-04-07-1]

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2014-01-06 Mon

#1715. Ireland ˤѸ [irish][ireland][irish_english][history][map]

Fennell (198--200) 󤹤ǡɤˤѸѤˤˤĤάҤ롥ɤˤѸαƶŪ˵Ҥǡפʻ3Ĥ롥1Ĥϡɤ˥󥰥Υޥ󷳤 Henry II (1133--89) μ1171ǯǤ롥ΤȤˤϱѸϰҿ줺˥ɸüԤˤꥢɲƤޤä1366ǯ Statutes of Kilkenny ˤѸϰ̤䶯ܺʤ줿̤ϽФʤä1550ǯ˽פؤȿȯ顤ץƥȤħѸФƥȥåħ륢ɸȤޤФ졤16桤ɤˤѸΩä  *
³17--18ϡѸαƶ˴ؤ2ȤƽפʻȤʤäλ󥰥ɿͤϥץơߤ뤳Ȥˤꥢɤ̱ϲ18ˤϥɤԻǤϱѸΰҿޤꡤɤλؤҿƱѸؤ֤褦ˤʤäΩưä1790ǯˤϡǤ¿ΥɿͤѸäޤǤˤʤäƤ
Ūʱƶڤܤ3ϡ1800ǯϢˡ (Act of Union) ˤꥢɤꥹʻ礵ưʹߤλǤ롥ѸϰҿξħȤʤꡤȿФ˥ɸȯŸ˸Ȱռ褦ˤʤä²λϻҶ򥤥󥰥ɤäƶ餹ޤǤˤʤä20ˤ J. P. Synge, Sean O'Casey, W. B. Yeats ʤɤɱѸˤʸسưᡤѸΰҿϤ˹ޤä1800ǯλǤϥɿ͸βȾɸȤƤ1851ǯˤϤΨ23%ޤǸ1900ǯˤ5%ˤޤƤ1900ǯˤϡ¤85%Ķ͸ѸñüԤȤʤäƤΤǤ롥19˱ѸüΨäطʤȤơ4Ĥװͤ (Fennell 199)

(1) the expansion of the railways out from English-speaking Dublin and Belfast;
(2) the spread of education, first in unofficial 'hedge' schools and then in the national schools from 1831, where English was promoted and the use of Irish actively discouraged;
(3) dramatic demographic change caused by famine and the massive emigration to America and other countries from 1830 to 1850. The famine particularly decimated the Irish-speakers in the west of Ireland, possibly halving the number of speakers.
(4) the association of English with progress, modernization and an international voice. . . . [E]ven nationalist politicians in Ireland preached their message in English, in the knowledge that it would bring them a wider audience.


1916ǯΥ˪θˤʤäơɸ줬ɤΥǥƥƥȤƤߤʤ褦ˤʤäѸδפϤǤФȤʤäƤߤ⡤ɤEUˤΩϱѸȤƤΩäƤ뤷Dublin ιԻԤȤƤ̾ѸäƤȤ⤤ΤǤ롥

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.

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2014-01-05 Sun

#1714. ƤαѸBluefields Puerto Limon [history][caribbean][map][lesser-know_varieties]

ε#1713. ƤαѸBay Islands ([2014-01-04-1]) ˰³ƤˤѸˤĤơϡBluefields (Nicaragua) Puerto Limón (Costa Rica) αѸܤ
Nicaragua Υֳ̤Į Bluefields ϡBritish West Indian, Nicaraguan ladino, Miskito (Afro-Indian) ο͡򺮹礵¿ʸϤǤ롥եꥫϥ衼åѿͤϱѸȤäʳ٤κϤ쥹ڥäNicaragua Υֳߤ19ȾФޤǥꥹλ۲ˤꡤƱμϰƱͤˡɽͳƤäƤեꥫͤ衼åѿͤߤĤȤ¿äߡλ¹ѸäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Bluefields αѸüԽĤϡ Bay Islands αѸüԽĤƱͤˡڥä¿ɽĤȤ⡤սαѸϰȤϢȤΤۤʰʾ塤Lipski, pp. 194--95 ˡ

Map of Nicaragua

ˡCosta Rica Υֳߤ̤ Puerto Limón äܤ#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1]) #1711. ֳϰαѸγȻ ([2014-01-02-1]) ǯɽǼPuerto Limón αѸѤˤϡBay Islands Bluefields ٤٤Ǥ롥ĮαѸüԤĤϡ1871ǯʹߤŴƻߤΤ Jamaica ʤɤϢƤ줿̤ιϫƯԤǤ롥ϫƯԤϡ̤ Costa Rica ̱ϳΥ졤θ⸽ߤ˻ޤͻ礷ȤϸPuerto Limón αѸüΨϡBay Islands Bluefiedls ٤㤤Ѹˤ붵εʤɤͿƤʰʾ塤Lipski, pp. 195--96 ˡ

Map of Costa Rica

Ⱥε Bay Islands, Bluefields, Puerto Limón ʤɰ̤ˤΤƤʤƤαѸˤΤϡȤƤαѸ줬ҲξɤˤääƤϰ褬¸ߤȤ¤դäǤ롥嵭ΤϤǤ⡤ѸμҲŪΩϡҿΤϤ¿ɸǤ륹ڥΰϤˤꡤŪ㤤ŪˤϱѸϸˤưҿΤǤȤȤϤǤ뤫⤷ʤ㳰ʤɤǤ⤽Ǥ櫓ǤϤʤȤǧƤɬפ롥

Lipski, John M. "English-Spanish Contact in the United States and Central America: Sociolinguistic Mirror Images?" Focus on the Caribbean. Ed. M. Görlach and J. A. Holm. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1986. 191--208.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-08-10-1] [2014-01-22-1]

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2014-01-04 Sat

#1713. ƤαѸBay Islands [history][caribbean][map][lesser-know_varieties]

ƤϿ̱ˤˤѸǤϤʤڥݥȥ줬ͥϰǤϤ뤬ֳפƽˤϱѸ줬ȤäƤϰ褬ߤƤ롥ϡ19ȾСѿ̱ϤˤѻߤȼäкѴơϰο͸ưȤͳ褹롥ߡѸȤƱѸѤƤ Belize Τۤˤ⡤Bay Islands (Honduras), Bluefields Ȥ륫ֳϰ Corn Islands (Nicaragua), Puerto Limón (Costa Rica), Livingston Puerto Barrios (Guatemala)San Andrés Providencia (Columbia)Bocas del Toro Colón (Panama) ʤɤˤơѸ줬ȤäƤ롥ϡHonduras 򸫤Ƥߤ褦

Map of Honduras

Honduras ߤ Costa de Mosquitos ȸƤФƤꡤ͸¿ʤѸ١Υ쥪äǥ̱²Ǥ롥̴ϰ La Costa Norte ȸƤФƤꡤ쥪ѸäͤޤतĤξ̱²Ǥ롥β⤫ Islas de la Bahía (Bay Islands) Ǥϡ1830ǯ˥ֳ Cayman Islands ̱Ƥ͡λ¹ǤꡤǯڤΥڥüԤܽƤƤΤΡѸ줬礿ȤäƤʡ#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1]) ڤӡ#1711. ֳϰαѸγȻ ([2014-01-02-1]) ΰ̱ǯɽ򻲾ȡˡꥫδѸҤˤ͵⤤
Ūˤ Bay Islands 17곤±βǤäͭԤ٤ѤƤ¼Ū˳ۤ뤳ȤϤʤäȤäƤ褤ߡ̱¿ͤͤѸȤäƤꡤڥμϤޤʤϡ糰˽ФȤˤϡڤˬȤ⥢ꥫɽαѸ (äĤνпϤǤ Jamaica Cayman Islandsˤˬ뤳ȤΤۤ¿ۥ󥸥饹ڤȤδطŪ嵭θ1986ǯ Lipski (193--94) ˰͵򤷤ΤʤΤǡǤ˸ŤˤʤäƤ뤫⤷ʤȤǤäƤ

Lipski, John M. "English-Spanish Contact in the United States and Central America: Sociolinguistic Mirror Images?" Focus on the Caribbean. Ed. M. Görlach and J. A. Holm. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1986. 191--208.

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2014-01-03 Fri

#1712. as regards [preposition][conjunction][impersonal_verb][corpus][clmet]

ɸνϸϡĥäʸΤǡ?˴ؤƤϡ?ˤĤơʤȡˡפΰ̣Ѥ롥ŵŪˤ "As regards the result, you need not worry so much." Τ褦˿ƳΤѤ롥ǽŪˤֻȤäƤ褤
ʣֻϡŪˤϡ#1201. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤֻȯ ([2012-08-10-1]) Ǽ褦ˡѸȯãƤ٤ as regards ϽѸǤϤʤѸǤȯãȹͤ롥OED regard, v. ˤȡ 8b ˤˡҤƤꡤȤƤ1797ǯ "A distinction is made, as regards moral rectitude, in the minds of many individuals." Ȥʸ󤲤Ƥ롥

b. as regards, as regarded (now rare), as regarding: with respect or reference to


Ʊưθʬ줫ȯŸ regarding, prep. ƱͤѤ뤬νȤƤ1779ǯ " The servant was called, and examined regarding the import of the answer he had brought from Madame la Comtesse." ʸ󤲤Ƥ롥̾˸³ regarding ˤĤƤ17㤬ꡤ줬ʬʤΤֻʤΤꤹ뤳Ȥ񤷤
ǯκ٤Ϥˤ衤as regards regarding ѸˤʤäƺդưͳֻǤȲ᤹뤳Ȥ礭ʰϤʤOED ˵ܤΤ as regarding ޤơư regard ֻʣΰ۷18Ⱦդ˳ȹͤ롥
Τ٤#1637. CLMET3.0 between betwixt ʬۤĴ ([2013-10-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 The Corpus of Late Modern English Texts, version 3.0 (CLMET3.0) ˤꡤas regards 򸡺Ƥߤas regarding 2ۤɥҥåȡˡ70ǯ֤Ȥ˶ڤä٤ޤȤȰʲΤ褦ˤʤä

DecadeFrequencyCorpus size
1710--17805 (5)10,480,431 words
1780--185070 (18)11,285,587
1850--1920347 (6)12,620,207


OED ⾯᤯18ȾФ㤬ǧ롥ʸįƤߤȡ⤷Ȥ1Ϥ so [as] far as regards . . . ȤǸƤʾɽǤä˼٤ϡ(in) so [as] far as regards . . . ηǸˡ"so far as regards the present subject", "as far as regards your knowledge", "so far as regards our present purpose" ǡǤ롥2ˤƱ㤬¿Ȥͤȡas regards as far as regards ξάȤȯŸ夷ƤȤͤ뤫⤷ʤ
ʤ as regards ʣֻȤƤȤ館ƤꡤŪʬϤ̣ϤʤŪʴؿ餢ŪʬϤСas Ͻ°³Ǥꡤʤ;ιʸƳƤȤȤˤʤ롥regards ˸³̾ϤޤưŪʬϤ롥

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2014-01-02 Thu

#1711. ֳϰαѸγȻ [geography][geolinguistics][history][timeline][caribbean]

ֳαѸʬۤˤĤơ#1679. The West Indies αѸ ([2013-12-01-1])#1680. The West Indies θ ([2013-12-02-1])#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥϰθϼ¤ʣǤꡤȤƼҲŪʴؿ "Caribbean linguistics" Ȥ̾Ǹ椬ʤƤ롥
ѸȤäƤߤƤ⡤̱ˡѸ줬Ȼˡpidgin creole ɸѸμҲŪʴطڥʤ¾μ׸Ȥζ¸ʤɡ䤦٤¿¿ͤʣطʤˤϡ˼Τ¿ͤʣΤHolm (1) 3ŦƤ롥μݤ򼨤ȡ(1) ϰαѸˤϡġڤȤʣαѸˤäƤꡤ1ĤˤˤޤȤ뤳Ȥ񤷤(2) ϰαѸγȻˤϡꥹŪϤγȻˤȤɬפƤʤ(3) ϰŪ˵ҤϡˤкѻˤǤꡤˤ pidgin creole դƤŪɾ椨˸ܤߤ뤳Ȥʤä(3) ˤĤƤϸߤǤϻѤäƤƤΤ(1) (2) ϤȤ⤷(2) ˤĤƤС㤨 St. Lucia Dominica ϵѹ̱Ϥ߱Ѹϳ2Ȥäˤʤѹ̱ϤǤϤʤꥫ Puerto Limón ɥߥ˥¹ the Samaná Peninsula Ǥϡ߱Ѹ줬ȤäƤ롤ʤɤλ𤬤롥
ϰΰ̱ˤȱѸȻˤΰü#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1]) εǤߤ硦ڤȤ˾ޤȤ᤿ Holm (18--19) ͿƤΤǡ򼨤Ƥ30ǯθŤǤϤ뤬̱νпϡHolm ɮ줿͸ʤɤޤȤƤꡤϰαѸγѤΤ˻ͤˤϤʤɽο͸Ρ---פϡ¾ιԤ˻Ƥ뤳Ȥ򼨤ˡ

Date of SettlementTerritorySettled fromCurrent Population
1609Bermuda (Atlantic)Britain, Africa55,000
1624St. Kitts (Leewards)Britain, Africa, Ireland40,000
1627BarbadosBritain, Africa, Ireland280,000
1628Nevis (Leewards)St. Kitts, Ireland15,000
1628Barbuda (Leewards)St. Kitts, Ireland1,100
1631St. Martin (Dutch Ww.)Leewards, Holland, France10,000
1631Providence (West Car.)Britain, Bermuda, New England4,000
1631?San Andrés (West Car.)uncertain4,000
1632Antigua (Leewards)St. Kitts74,000
1633Montserrat (Leewards)St. Kitts, Ireland12,000
1636St. Eustatius (D. Ww.)Leewards, Holland1,000
1640Saba (Dutch Windwards)St. Eustatius, Leewards1,000
1648Bahamas (Eleuthera)Bermuda240,000
1650Anguilla (Leewards)Leewards6,500
1651Suriname (S. America)Barbados (Sranan 1st lang.: 125,000)404,000
1655JamaicaBarbados, Leewards, Suriname, Bermuda2,215,000
1666British Virgin Is.Leewards12,000
1670Cayman Is. (West Car.)Britain, Jamaica16,000
1670CarolinaBritain, Jamaica, Barbados, Bermuda, BahamasGullah: 250,000
1672St. Thomas (Virgin Is.)Leewards, Dutch Windwards, Denmark---
1678Turks and CaicosBermuda7,000
1684St. John (Virgin Is.)St. Thomas---
to 1715Saramaccan (Suriname)Coastal plantations(20,000)
from 1715Djuka (Suriname)Coastal plantations(16,000)
ca. 1730Miskito Coast (C.A.)Belize, Jamaica40,000
1733St. Croix (Virgin Is.)Leewards, St. Thomas---
1740's(British) GuyanaBarbados, Leewards832,000
from 1760Aluku (Fr. Guiana)Coastal plantations of Suriname---
1763Dominica (Br. Windw.)French Antilles (French Creole) 
1763St. Vincent (Br. Ww.)Leewards, Barbados112,000
1763Grenada (Br. Windw.)Fr. Antilles, Leewards, Barbados108,000
1763Tobago?---
from 1780southern BahamasU.S. South---
1786BelizeMiskito Coast150,000
1786Andros, BahamasMiskito Coast---
1797TrinidadWindwards, Barbados, Bahamas1,150,000
1815St. LuciaFrench Antilles (French Creole) 
from 1824Samaná, Dominican Rep.U.S. freedmen8,000
1827Bocas del Toro, PanamaSan Andrés---
1830'sBay Islands, HondurasCayman Islands10,000
1849Nacimiento, MexicoAfro-Seminoles300?
from 1850Rama, east NicaraguaMiskito Coast300?
1870Bracketville, TexasNacimiento Afro-Seminoles300?
1871Puerto Limón, Costa RicaJamaica, Eastern Caribbean40,000
1898Puerto RicoUnited States100,000?
1904--14PanamaJamaica, Eastern Caribbean100,000?
1917Virgin IslandsUnited Statestotal: 100,000
total: 6,398,500


Holm, J. A. "The Spread of English in the Caribbean Area." Focus on the Caribbean. Ed. M. Görlach and J. A. Holm. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1986. 1--22.

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2014-01-01 Wed

#1710. of yore [etymology][oe][vowel]

쿷ǯǯܥ֥³Ƥޤꤤޤ
New Year ˤʤǡyear ȴϢʤ⤷ʤ˸θ츻ˤĤơɸ of yore ϡΤΡΤϡפ̣Ǥ롥Τ褦˷ƻŪ뤤ŪѤ롥

This was once a Roman road in days of yore.
The great composers of yore performed for kings and queens.
But Satan now is wiser than of yore.


yore ϡűѸ gēar (year) ʣ°ʷ gēara ͳ褹Ȥ롥°ʤŪǽ̤ΤǡֲǯΡפȤ̣ΤȲᤵƤ롥yore ñȤǤȤƤˡϸűѸ줫餢ꡤ1613ǯǸѤȤʤä̾ȤƤ ?c1350 ˽Ф餿°ʤˡȿǤΤ褦 of yore 礬ޤ졤ߤޤ³Ƥʸڤ a1375 ˡ
θ츻ϲŪˤ񤬤褦ˤߤ롥űѸʣ°ʷ *geāra ǤФθβѲˤĤʤ뤬ºݤˤ gēara ǤϤʤäSkeat (Principles 55fn) ϡ"The A.S. ge-, as occurring here before á, represents the sound of mod. E. y; at any rate, it did so in late A.S." ȲᤷƤꡤȤȤβ2첻 (falling diphthong) 徺2첻 (rising diphthong) ѲȤߤƤ롥ƱͤˡKlein gēara geāra µơξȤʸűѸǤȤߤʤƤ롥ˡBarnhart geāra "variant" ȤߤʤƤ롥Partridge ⤳θ츻äǧƤʤ
OED yore, adv. (and adj.) Ǥϡ츻ˤĤ "Old English geára, also geáre, geáro, adverbial formations of obscure origin." ȤƤꡤ"year" ȤδϢˤĤƤϸڤ򤱤Ƥ롥Oxford Ϥθ츻ŵϡƱͤ "of obscure origin" źƤ롥OED ˵Ƥ̤θ츻ˤȡgefyrn (< ge- + fyrn (long ago)) ޤͤ ge- + ār (ere) Ȥ¤줵줿ΤǤϤʤȤ⤵롥
嵭λǡʣ°ϤޤʤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ¿θ츻ؼԤѤƤͭϤǤ뤳Ȥˤϰ㤤ʤ⤷θ츻⤬ȤС of yore ϡűѸ̾첽ʣ°ʤˡǽȷ֤ˤơ¤ʤŪʷǤϤ뤬ƸߤˤޤäͭȤȤˤʤ롥

Skeat, Walter W. Principles of English Etymology. 1st ser. 2nd Rev. ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1892.
Skeat, Walter William, ed. An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. 4th ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910. 1st ed. 1879--82. 2nd ed. 1883.
Skeat, Walter William, ed. A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. New ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910. 1st ed. 1882.
Klein, Ernest. A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language, Dealing with the Origin of Words and Their Sense Development, Thus Illustrating the History of Civilization and Culture. 2 vols. Amsterdam/London/New York: Elsevier, 1966--67. Unabridged, one-volume ed. 1971.
Barnhart, Robert K. and Sol Steimetz, eds. The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology. Bronxville, NY: The H. W. Wilson, 1988.
Partridge, Eric Honeywood. Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. 4th ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966. 1st ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; New York: Macmillan, 1958.

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