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ǯɸֻŪ˴ؤ
߷˧ͺ ԡرѸ츻ŵʽ̺ǡˡ١ʸҡ1999ǯp.731ˤˤޤȡinterpreterȤˤơ -er Ѥ褦ˤʤäΤ16ȤƤޤ-er ͥˤʤäطʤˤϤɤʻ𤬤äΤǤ礦鹬Ǥ
줫龯Ĵ٤Ƥߤ interpreter Ȥ1ǤϤʤư -er, -or 롤ŪΤ褦ǤꡤŪʣȤߤ롥ܳŪ˲ˤϾĴ٤ʤФʤʤȻפΤǡϼޤΤΤ
-or -er ִ줿ΡޤεִϡѸ˾夷Фи롥ˤĤƤС -er ϱѸΤΡ -or ϥƥͳ褹ΤǤ뤬Ѹ衤ξԤѤ뤤ʻѤ㤬롥Ѹˤƥƥ -or ıñδŪįȡUpward and Davidson (143--44) ˼Τ褦ʵҤ롥
-OR, -OUR: The ending -OR was originally Lat, and many of the words with that ending in ModE are exact Lat forms: actor, doctor, professor, poerator, error, horror, senior, superior, etc.
Many other words with -OR may have it modelled on the Lat ending, but derive more directly from Fr forms with other endings which were often used in ME or EModE:
* Ambassador, author, emperor, governor, tailor were often written with -OUR in EModE.
* Bachelor, chancellor were often written with -ER in ME and EModE.
* Councillor was formerly not distinguished from counsellor. Both derive from Fr counseiller and were often written counseller in ME.
* Warrior (OFr werreor, ModFr guerrier) was in ME generally spelt -IOUR.
* Ancestor, anchor, traitor have ModFr equivalents ending in -RE (ancêtre, etc.) and were often spelt with -RE in ME.
* Mayor was adopted in EModE as a more Latinate form (compare major) in preference to ME mair(e) from Fr maire.
ƥȤ -or ĸ줬ѸäƤȡ-or ݤΤϳΤ¿DZѸեδ˽ä -(i)our -er æƥ⤢äȤ狼롥
Τ褦ʺޤδΤʤ顤٤ηϤ㤬ˤǤäƤ#1349. procrastination ([2013-01-05-1]) #1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§ ([2013-02-08-1]) Ǥˤ褦ˡƥ줫μѤ˴ƤˤäơƥñѸȤƼݤδˤ䤫ʡֱѸ첽§פŬѤ褦ˤʤäƤȤȤο㡦§1Ĥˡƥ -ator ư̾ -er ȤƼʤ뤤ϼʤˤȤΤäΤǤϤʤ㡦§ȤϸäΤΡºݤˤϤٳΩޤǤˤϻ֤⤫ä櫓Ǥꡤδ֡ŪѰ̻ۤŪѲäΤȻפ롥ƥ -ator ϡޤ -eur, -or, -our ʤɤΥեŪʷ֤ФơǽŪˤϱѸ -er ˼äΤǤϤʤ̤ȤƤߤСƥ -ator ȱѸ -er бΩȤˤʤ롥ˤĤơUpward and Davidson (110) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The -ER may have developed from Lat -ATOR through MFr/ME -OUR to ModE -ER: e.g. Lat portator > OFr porteour > ME porteour > ME portour > ModE porter. Similar histories underlie controller, counter, recorder, turner, and partially also waiter (< OFr waitour).
ơΰѤκǸˤ⤦1դä٤ȤơˤƤ LL interpretātor (explainer) ΤǤϤʤ顤OF interpreteur AF interpretour ͳơ ME interpretour interpretor Ԥʤ졤ModE interpreter ؤȻäȹͤ롥
ʾСƥ -ator ˵İ췲θ줬Ѹ -or ¾η֤ФΤѸ -er ػ㤬¿äȤȤǤϤʤ16 interpretor > interpreter ϡλ1ĤȤߤʤȤǤǤ롥
ˤĤƤϡ⤤Ĵ٤ƤͽǤ롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
#1730. AmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer ([2014-01-21-1]) ǡ2006ǯνեƥȤԻƳѼ拾ѥҲ𤷡˴ŤӥġΥġʤ鵤ŤΤƱˡԻ졤ϤƱ100٤ the Brown family of corpora ʡ#428. The Brown family of corpora Ѿա ([2010-06-29-1])ˤϢȤСľ50ǯ֤ۤɤ̻ŪʱƴӤưפ˲ǽȤʤ롥
ǡεǾҲ𤷤 Professor Paul Baker - Linguistics and English Language at Lancaster University ˤ AmE06 BrE06 ˲äơեꥫѸɽ Brown (1961), Frown (1992)եꥹѸɽ LOB (1961), FLOB (1991) ɽФ碌ƥǡ١ѤλϡAmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer ȤۤƱʤΤǡμ ([2014-01-21-1]) Ȥ줿ϤɽǤϡθиƥȤοٽ̤ϾʤƤꡤ100٤ɽˤȤɤƤΤǡAmE06 BE06 ˤĤԤξɬפʾˤϡAmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer ɤ
#1266. ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫 (1) ([2012-10-14-1])#1267. ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫 (2) ([2012-10-15-1])#1268. ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫 (3) ([2012-10-16-1]) ǡꥫѸ줬ŤѸ褯¸ƤȤ "colonial lag" οäˤĤƵꥫǤȤ櫓դƤ뤳μοä1ĤˡɸΤΤ롥οäĤƤ Montgomery ܤɾƤꡤ˺äǤ뤫Τ褦˾Ҳ𤷤Ƥ (66--67)
The idea that in isolated places somewhere in the country people still use 'Elizabethan' or 'Shakespearean' speech is widely held, and it is probably one of the hardier cultural beliefs or myths in the collective American psyche. Yet it lacks a definitive version and is often expressed in vague geographical and chronological terms. Since its beginning in the late nineteenth century the idea has most often been associated with the southern mountains --- the Appalachians of North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky and West Virginia, and the Ozarks of Arkansas and Missouri. At one extreme it reflects nothing less than a relatively young nation's desire for an account of its origins, while at the other extreme the incidental fact that English colonization of North America began during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I four centuries ago. Two things in particular account for its continued vitality: its romanticism and its political usefulness. Its linguistic validity is another matter. Linguists haven't substantiated it, nor have they tried, since the claim of Elizabethan English is based on such little evidence. But this is a secondary, if not irrelevant, consideration for those who have articulated it in print --- popular writers and the occasional academic --- for over a century. It has indisputably achieved the status of a myth in the sense of a powerful cultural belief.
äʤΤǡȤʤäƤϤŪˤɤؤΤۣAppalachia the Ozarks դ꤬餷

ǤϡαѸѼβäƥꥶ٥īαѸȤΤФаѤΤϡưζѲѷ (ex. clum (climbed), drug (dragged), fotch (fetched), holp (help)) -st ǽñ̾ʣȤƤ -es (ex. postes, beastes, nestes, ghostes) ʤɤ¾αƤѼˤ⸫ħǤꡤѥͭΤΤǤϤʤ (Montgomery 68) εˤϡŪˤۤɤκϤʤΤǤ롥
˽Ҥ٤ƤȤꡤäޤ줿طʤˤϡŤ褭ɤؤΥޥŪͭȤäԤΥޥ䤹ȤƤ⡤ԤŪͭȤϲΤȤMontgomery (75) ˤȡ餹͡ФŽĤ줿Ϥ̵ܤļ˼ԡפȤΥåƥʧ뤿ˡäѸϡָŤ褭ѸפǤȤäϽФ줿ΤȤ
Advancing the idea, improbable as it is, that mountain people speak like Shakespeare counters the prevailing ideology of the classroom and society at large that unfairly handicaps rural mountain people as uneducated and unpolished and that considers their language to be a corruption of proper English.
ֻäѼ郎οäˤäơָŤ褭ѤʡѼȤޤѤäȤȤˤʤ롥ҲŪʲͤθʵžǤ롥βͤβͤصžΤ顤켫ΤϰȤǤϤʤȸΤ⤷ʤŪʰտޤˤ餫صžȤȤϡƱտޤˤؤεž⤢ȤȤƤꡤդˤޤĤäȤΤݤȶǤϤʤ
Montgomery, Michael. "In the Appalachians They Speak like Shakespeare." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 66--76.
#1735. ʥ̾ͳ ([2014-01-26-1]) ȡ#1736. ꥹ̾ͳ ([2014-01-27-1]) ³ơϥꥫν (state) ̾ͳˬͤ롥ޤϡäϿޤ顥

츻̤50ߤȡʲΤ褦ˤʤäƤ롥Ⱦꥫ轻̱θͳ褹롥
| Number | Origin |
|---|---|
| 28 | American Indian |
| 11 | English |
| 6 | Spanish |
| 3 | French |
| 1 | Dutch (Rhode Island) |
| 1 | from America's own history (Washington) |
| Alabama | Choctaw "I open the thicket" (i.e. clears the land) |
| Alaska | Inuit "great land" |
| Arizona | Papago "place of the small spring" |
| Arkansas | Sioux "land of the south wind people" |
| California | Spanish "earthly paradise" |
| Colorado | Spanish "red" (colour of the earth) |
| Connecticut | Mohican "at the long tidal river" |
| Delaware | named after English governor Lord de la Warr |
| Florida | Spanish "land of flowers" |
| Georgia | named after George II |
| Hawaii | Hawaiian "homeland" |
| Idaho | Shoshone "light on the mountain" |
| Illinois | Algonquian via French "warriors" |
| Indiana | English "land of the Indians" |
| Iowa | Dakota "the sleepy one" |
| Kansas | Sioux "land of the south wind people" |
| Kentucky | Iroquois "meadow land" |
| Louisiana | named after Louis XIV of France |
| Maine | named after a French province |
| Maryland | named after Henrietta maria, queen of Charles I |
| Massachusetts | Algonquian "place of the big hill" |
| Michigan | Chippewa "big water" |
| Minnesota | Dakota Sioux "sky-coloured water" |
| Mississippi | Chippewa "big river" |
| Missouri | Algonquian via French "muddy waters" (?) |
| Montana | Spanish "mountains" |
| Nebraska | Omaha "river in the flatness" |
| Nevada | Spanish "snowy" |
| New Hampshire | named after an English county |
| New Jersey | named after Jersey (Channel Islands) |
| New Mexico | named after Mexico (Aztec "war god, Mextli") |
| New York | named after the Duke of York |
| North Carolina | named after Charles II |
| North Dakota | Sioux "friend" |
| Ohio | Iroquois "beautiful water" |
| Oklahoma | Choctaw "red people" |
| Oregon | Algonquian "beautiful water" or "beaver place" (?) |
| Pennsylvania | named after William Penn and Latin "woodland" |
| Rhode Island | Dutch "red clay" |
| South Carolina | named after Charles II |
| South Dakota | Sioux "friend" |
| Tennessee | Cherokee settlement name, unknown origin |
| Texas | Spanish "allies" |
| Utah | Navaho "upper land" or "land of the Ute" (?) |
| Vermont | French "green mountain" |
| Virginia | named after Elizabeth I, the "virgin queen" |
| Washington | named after George Washington |
| West Virginia | named after Elizabeth I, the "virgin queen" |
| Wisconsin | Algonquian "grassy place" or "beaver place" (?) |
| Wyoming | Algonquian "place of the big flats" |
ε#1735. ʥ̾ͳ ([2014-01-26-1]) ³ơϥꥹν (county, shire) ̾εˤĤơޤϡäϿޤǤOrdnance Survey - Outline maps ꤷ1972--1996ǯε콣̾äϿޤǤ롥ޤåƳ (65KB) 뤤ʤ (260KB)뤤PDF (243KB) Ȥʤɤ

ʲν̾ͳϡCrystal (143) ˤȤŤWestern Isles, Highland, Central, Borders ʤɡΤΤϾάƤ롥ʤ饱Ƚͳ褹뽣̾¿
| Avon | "river" |
| Bedford | "Beda's ford" |
| Berkshire | "county of the wood of Barroc" ("hilly place") |
| Buckingham | "riverside land of Bucca's people" |
| Cambridge | "bridge over the river Granta" |
| Cheshire | "county of Chester" (Roman "fort") |
| Cleveland | "hilly land" |
| Clwyd | "hurdle" (? on river) |
| Cornwall | "(territory of) Britons of the Cornovii" ("promontory people") |
| Cumbria | "territory of the Welsh" |
| Derby | "village where there are deer" |
| Devon | "(territory of) the Dumnonii" ("the deep ones", probably miners) |
| Dorset | "(territory of the) settlers around Dorn" ("Dorchester") |
| Dumfries and Galloway | "woodland stronghold"; "(territory of) the stranger-Gaels" |
| Durham | "island with a hill" |
| Dyfed | "(territory of) the Demetae" |
| Essex | "(territory of) the East Saxons" |
| Fife | "territory of Vip" (?) |
| Glamorgan | "(Prince) Morgan's shore" |
| Gloucester | "(Roman) fort at Glevum" ("bright place") |
| Grampian | unknown origin |
| Gwent | "favoured place" |
| Gwynedd | "(territory of) Cunedda" (5th-century leader) |
| Hampshire | "county of Southampton" ("southern home farm") |
| Hereford and Worcester | "army ford"; "(Roman) fort of the Wigora" |
| Hertford | "hart ford" |
| Humberside | "side of the good river" |
| Kent | "land on the border" (?) |
| Lancashire | "(Roman) fort on the Lune" ("health-giving river") |
| Leicester | "(Roman) fort of the Ligore people" |
| Lincoln | "(Roman) colony at Lindo" ("lake place") |
| London | "(territory of) Londinos" ("the bold one") (?) |
| Lothian | "(territory of) Leudonus" |
| Man | "land of Mananan" (an Irish god) |
| Manchester | "(Roman) fort at Mamucium" |
| Merseyside | "(side of the) boundary river" |
| Norfolk | "northern people" |
| Northampton | "northern home farm" |
| Northumberland | "land of those dwelling north of the Humber" |
| Nottingham | "homestead of Snot's people" |
| Orkney | "whale island" (?) (After J. Field, 1980) |
| Oxford | "ford used by oxen" |
| Powys | "provincial place" |
| Scilly | unknown origin |
| Shetland | "hilt land" |
| Shropshire | "county of Shrewsbury" ("fortified place of the scrubland region") |
| Somerset | "(territory of the) settlers around Somerton" ("summer dwelling") |
| Stafford | "ford beside a landing-place" |
| Strathclyde | "valley of the Clyde" (the "cleansing one") |
| Suffolk | "southern people" |
| Surrey | "southern district" |
| Sussex | "(territory of) the South Saxons" |
| Tayside | "silent river" or "powerful river" |
| Tyne and Wear | "water, river"; "river" |
| Warwick | "dwellings by a weir" |
| Wight | "place of the division" (of the sea) (?) |
| Wiltshire | "county around Wilton" ("farm on the river Wylie") |
| Yorkshire | "place of Eburos" |
#1733. Canada ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-24-1]) ӡ#1734. Canada ιϡ ([2014-01-25-1]) ǥʥ夲ϥʥν (province) Ƚལ (territory) ̾ˤĤơ
ʥ2̤ѤؤΦȤȤƤ103ལʤ롥Nunavut 1999ǯΩ줿Фνལǡ̱¿轻̱²Ǥ롥

Northwest Territories ʸ̤ʤΤǽ츻ŵˤĴ٤12ʽ˽̾Ǥεե٥åȽ˷Ǥ롥
Alberta ϡQueen Victoria 4ܤ̼ Princess Louise Caroline Alberta ˤʤࡥ
Brunswick ϡGeorge II, Duke of Brunswick ˤʤࡥ
Columbia ϡϥɥѲҤλ Columbia District Ѥ줿֥֥ϡפΰա
Labrador ϡݥȥ lavrador (yeoman farmer) ͳ褹Ȥ졤John Cabot ̿̾Ȥꤵ뤬̤ܡ
Manitoba ϡ轻̱θ Algonquian manito bau (spirit straight) ꡥ manito ϡ1698ǯ˱Ѹ manitou ȤäƤꡤ֡ʥ르²Ρ⡨Ķϡפɽ魯
Newfoundland ϡֿȯϡפȤ John Cabot ˤ̿̾줿Ρ
Nova Scotia ϡƥ "New Scotland" ΰա
Nunavut ϡ轻̱θ Inuit "our land" ̣롥
Ontario ϡ轻̱θ Iroquoian Oniatariio (the fine lake) Υեꡥ
Prince Edward ϡGeorge III 4ܤ© Prince Edward Augustus, the Duke of Kent ˤʤࡥ
Quebec ϡ轻̱θ Algonquian kabek (the place shut in) ꡥ
Saskatchewan ϡ轻̱θ Cree kisiskatchewani (swift-flowing river) ꡥRocky ̮ȯƤ줿̾
Yukon ϡ轻̱θ Athapascan yukon-na (big river) ꡥ١Ƥ줿̾
ε#1733. Canada ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-24-1]) ǡʥˤѸˤѤΤʤǡʥ1965ǯ˹ΥǥǤɤäߤΤ (Maple Leaf flag) ѹȤ˿줿National Symbols - Anthems and Symbols - Canadian Identity ˤȡΥʥιȤƤ͡ʥǥäȤ˶ᤤüζ (canton) ˡΤǤ뤳Ȥɽ魯ΤȤ Union Jack ۤ줿Τ¿ä㤨С1957ǯλǤϰʲκΤΤѤƤ
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#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1])#1718. Wales ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-09-1])#1719. Scotland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-10-1]) ˰³礿Ѹ˥Ȥƥʥ夲롥

ʥϤؤϡ1ǯۤˡޤ̥åȤ褷ϼġϫĤ1000ǯ衼åѿͤȤƽƥʥ夷衼åѿͤˤܳŪʥʥõγϤϡ֥ȯ15ԤʤФʤʤä
1497ǯJohn Cabot (1425--99) ϡɲ Henry VII εĤơ٤Bristol ؤȽйҤCabot ĤΤϥǤϤʤʥ쳤ߤäCabot ιҳ¿õߤꡤθΥʥõȳȯ˹뤳ȤȤʤäºݤΤȤCabot 夷Υʥ쳤ߤϡꥹեڥݥȥεդˤϤǤíεȤΤƤ褦
1534ǯե Jacques Cartier (1491--1557) ϩȯΤФCartier Newfoundland ĶơSaint Lawrence Ѥߡǥ² (Iroquois) ʹǡ¼פ̣ kanata αƤ롥줬 Canada εȤ롥ʥõ̤ơեϥӡСǰפ˾ʥؤδͿƤȤˤʤäNew France ȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤäʥ1663ǯ˥եΤȤʤꡤ̱Ͽ1ͤۤɤˤʤäƤϡߤ670ͤΥեϥʥͤǤ롥եϡסõꥹȶ۶δǥߥåꡤ1682ǯˤϥᥭѤãƤơ18ƬκˤϡեƤ˹ʸפݤ˻ä
ɿͤ٤ƥʥؤθפϤƤ16Ⱦˤ Newfoundland St. John's ƽο̱ϤߤϥɥѲ (Hudson's Bay Company) Ωƥϥɥնθפꤷ18δ֤˱ʩΩʤʤꡤ1754--63ǯˤϥեǥ (French and Indian War) Ǿ͡ꥹξˤꥫʥιڤѿ̱ϤȤʤäδ֤ˡNew Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Quebec Maine ޤ Acadia 顤Ȥեϰ̱ꥫ Louisiana ʤɤ뤳Ȥˤʤäߤ Louisiana äƤեѼ Cajun (< Acadian) äϡΥեϰ̱Ǥ롥
ꥫΩ˺ݤơꥹŪä (Loyalist) ο͡ϡꥫ˻Ĥ뤳Ȥ餷Ȥ4ͤȤϤ Nova Scotia ءΦؤȰܽŪʸ٤ι⤤滺ο͡ޤ̤˰̱ȤȤϡ˾塤ޤǤ롥ˡEngland, Scotland, Ireland ľܤΰ̱⤪ʤ졤ʥˤѸ̤αѸä̱ˤꡤ̥ꥫˤƥꥹǻ Upper Canada ʸߤ Ontarioˤȥեǻ Lower Canada ʸߤ Quebecˤ̤褦ˤʤä2ΩȤ⤤1812ǯαƴ֤襤ǤϡUpper Canada ȤʤꡤꥫȥʥȤʬΥռޤ뤳ȤȤʤä
1867ǯʥ Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Ontario, Quebec ѼΤȤʤꡤ1931ǯˤΩãϢˮ (The Commonwealth of Nations) ΰȤƻĤ⡤1965ǯˤ Union Jack Ȥ߹ѤơߤΥǤιѡ1982ǯˤϼηˡꤷ˼縢ʤ顤ʥΩݻƤꡤꥶ٥ȸȤƤʥʥλʾˤϥꥶ٥Ƥˡ
ߡʥ¿ȤǤ롥ʥͤ60%Ѹüԡ20%եüԤǤꡤۤˤ轻̱̱ˤ100ʾθ줬äƤ롥
ʾ塤Ȥ Svartvik and Leech (90--95) ȤƼɮʥˤѸιˤĤƤϡ#1698. ꥫαѸγȻȤΰŪʥѥ ([2013-12-20-1]) ӡ#1701. ꥫؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-23-1]) ⻲ȡ
ͤޤǤˡ֥饤ꥢॺ (60--61) ꡤʥˤǯɽǤƤ
| 2000 | ̥åȤ̥ꥫؤäƤ롥 |
| 800 | Хեǥɡåʬ |
| 800 | ɹϤष̥ꥫ̤Ϥޤ롥 |
| 1000 | 쥤աꥯΨХ̥ꥫ˾Φʤ餯˥塼եɥɡ֥ɥȡ⤦1ˡ |
| 1020 | Х̥ꥫõ롥 |
| 1075 | 饹Υ塼졦̥åȤ̶ʸͥȤʤ롥 |
| 1497 | ܥåȤ˥塼եɥɤȥס֥ȥ˾Φ |
| 1534 | åƥȡõȡѤαߤեΤ롥 |
| 1583 | ˥塼եɥɤꥹγ̱ϤȤʤ롥 |
| 1627 | ե̥ꥫˤĤä̱ϡ֥˥塼եפ뤿ᡤ˥塼եҤΩ롥 |
| 1670 | ɥǰϥɥѲҤΩϥɥѤϤϰξȷۤ롥 |
| 1701 | 20ǯ֤γ38轻̱²Ȥեʿ¾֡ |
| 1756 | ǯǡ礭ǤкϤǤ⾡륤ꥹο̱Ϥ˥塼ե |
| 1763 | ѥФ졤ǯ褬롥ߥåˤäեο̱Ϥϥꥹڤˤʤ롥˥塼եϥ٥å̱Ϥ̾ΤѤ롥 |
| 1783 | ȥꥪ龦ͤΡȲҤΩ̤äʿΤޤǡ꤬Ǥ롥 |
| 1791 | ٥åʥʸߤΥ٥åˤȥåѡ/ʥʸߤΥꥪˤȤʬ롥 |
| 1812--14 | 1812ǯ补ФǤϳ郎ʤ졤衼ʸߤΥȥȡˤϥꥫιꥫΥʥάλߤϼԤ |
| 1821 | ϥɥѲҤȥΡȲҤʻǯĤŤƤϤ褬롥 |
| 1841 | ʥȡʥʥˤȥʥȡʥåѡʥˤʥȤƺƤ礵롥 |
| 1867 | ѹ̥ꥫˡˤꡤѼΥʥˤϥꥪ٥åΥС˥塼֥åޤޤƤ |
| 1870 | ޥ˥ȥСĤŤƥ֥ƥå塦ӥץɥɡɤˤʤ롥 |
| 1885 | ʥǥѥեåŴƻ |
| 1898 | 桼ήǥɥå夬롥桼Ͻལϰ̤Ϳ롥 |
| 1905 | Сȥˤʤ롥 |
| 1931 | ȥߥϤˤꡤꥹμΤ˴ʼ롥 |
| 1947 | ʥȥꥹϡϢ粦Ʊϰ̤ĤȤˤʤ롥 |
| 1949 | ʥξΩСȤʤ롥ꥹϥ˥塼եɥɤʥִԡ |
| 1965 | ޤǤΥꥹǻꡤդΥǥιǤ롥 |
| 1967 | ȥꥪ졤ꥹǤϤʤʥȤƤμФޤ롥 |
| 1968 | ٥åδΩȤ뤳ȤŪˡ٥åޤȿ롥 |
| 1970 | ٥åΩʤŪʬΥΩΥ롼ס٥åꥹξ̳Ͷ٥åä |
| 1982 | ʥϴʼͳ롥ꥹ餹٤ƤˡŪܹԤ줿塤ˡꤵ롥 |
| 1984 | ԥ롦ȥɡ꤬षǿݼޤΥ֥饤ޥ롼ˡ |
| 1992 | ʥꥫᥭƼͳǰĴ롥 |
| 1993 | ޥ롼ˡݼǤθࡦ٥뤬ʥνȤưѤο塤ϥƥ롥 |
| 1995 | ٥åν̱ɼǡ鷺1%κΩݷ褵롥 |
| 1998 | ٥å¿ν̱Ω˾硤ϢˮܤεĤäƽΩǤ뤳Ȥʥǹۤ |
| 1999 | ̥ʥ֥Ȥལˤʤ롥̱¿轻̱²ǤལȤƺǽ顥 |
| 2003 | ȥȤǡʳǺSARSʿٱˤȯ |
| 2003 | ٥åǼͳޤ٥åޤˤꡤΩɤޤˤۤ롥 |
| 2003 | ƥ10ǯؤκ¤ࡥǤϥݡ롦ޡƥ |
| 2006 | ݼޤʥܤλ۸롥ƥ֥ϡѡ˽Ǥ |
#1720. Shakespeare ֤ ([2014-01-11-1]) ǡȤθ¸뼫ȤƤϡߤɸŪֻ Shakespeare ϸʤȽҤ٤ֻ5ढä <k> <s> Τ첻 <e> ʤäΤǤ롥ɽ魯ֻȤ <e> Shakespeare Shake-speare ¿ԤƤȤΤǤ롥Ǥϡ <e> ̵ͭϤɤΤ褦Τ
Crystal and Crystal (72) ˤȡShakespeare ֻǽ˰ʪ˸줿Τϡ1593ǯ Venus and Adonis νǤȼμˤƤǤ롥ʹߡȼԤϤֻ³뤳Ȥˤʤä<e> Τϡ餯 <k> <s> γ٤碌ˤΤ뤿äȤΤϡ٤碌ˤȡ<k> αεӤѶʤ long <s> κεӤѶʤȤ֤ĤäƤޤ줬뤫δ֤ <e> ʤƤ³ƥϥեȡγϲ褹ʲȡˡĤޤꡤ䤿θƤ뤢ֻϡꥶ٥īγǰͭλˤȼԤκФֻäȤȤˤʤ롥

long <s> ˤĤƤϡ#584. long <s> graphemics ([2010-12-02-1]) ȡ
Crystal, David and Ben Crystal. The Shakespeare Miscellany. Woodstock & New York: The Overlook Press, 2005.
ѸüԤѸǥ벽ߤˤĤƤϡmodel_of_englishes γƵ˼夲ƤȤ櫓ŵŪʬ ENL, ESL, EFL 3ʬˤ⤦1 EBL (English as a Basal Language) ä٤Ȥܤ٤롥#1713. ƤαѸBay Islands ([2014-01-04-1]) ȡ#1714. ƤαѸBluefields Puerto Limon ([2014-01-05-1]) ǻȤ Lipski ʸɤǤȤ˽вäLipski (204) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
In offering a classification of societies where English is used, Moag suggests, in addition to the usual English as a native/second/foreign language, a new category: English as a Basal Language, defined for a society in which "English is the mother tongue of a minority group of a larger populace whose native tongue, often Spanish, is clearly the dominant language of the society as a whole." . . . . Moag's typology is undoubtedly useful and underlines the necessity for expanding the currently accepted typologies to accommodate such situations as the CAmE groups.
ǡѤƤ Moag ʸäƤߤMoag (14) ˤȡEBL ȤƻؼϰˤϼΤ褦ʤΤȤArgentina, Costa Rica (Jamaican Blacks), Dominican Republic (Samaná), Honduras (Coast and Bay Islands), Mexico (Mormon Colonístas), Nicaragua (Meskito Coast), Panama, San Andres (Columbia), St. Maarten (Netherlands Antilles) .
EBL κħϡˤ⤢ȤꡤɤȤƤαѸѤˤ롥ɤαѸüԶƱΤ¿ɤΥڥüԶƱΤܤ餷ƤȤޤΥǥǤϡΤ褦ʼҲŪˤ줿ѸѼŬڤ˰֤Ť뤳ȤǤʤäȤΤϡ3ʬǤϡѸϾ˼ҲŪ˸ҤǤȤŤ˴ޤޤƤENL ǤϡʤѸüԤ¿ɤʤΤǡѸμҲŪʰ괶ϳݤƤ롥ESL EFL Ǥ⡤ŪŪ lingua franca ȤƤαѸϳͥݥƥɾƤʿ̱ϼؤȿʤɤˤ㳰Ϥ뤬Moag (36) ˤ褦ˡ¿ξϰŪʤΤǤȹͤˡȤ嵭ϰǤϡѸϾɸȤ¿ɸˤäƼɤƤꡤˤϤüԤˤäƤͥƥɾͿƤΤǤüԤˤͥƥɾϡαѸѼ郎ɸŪѼȤϥ쥪벽ѼǤȤˤФеˡ
Ѹ줬üԤˤäƤɾͿƤȤҲŪϡҤȤǥΤʤ˴ޤɬפơENL, ESL, EFL, EBL 4ʬȤǥ뤬Ƥ뤳ȤȤʤäMoag (12--13) Ǥϡ4̤Τ26κ٤ȽǴߤƤ롥Moag ʸ30ǯʾΤΤʤΤǡEBL ϰפκǿθΤꤿȤǤϤ롥
Lipski, John M. "English-Spanish Contact in the United States and Central America: Sociolinguistic Mirror Images?" Focus on the Caribbean. Ed. M. Görlach and J. A. Holm. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1986. 191--208.
Moag, Rodney. "English as a Foreign, Second, Native and Basal Language." New Englishes. Ed. John Pride. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1982. 11--50.
Professor Paul Baker - Linguistics and English Language at Lancaster University ȤڡƤäBaker ԻѸ졦Ƹ쥳ѥ BE06 AmE06 ξȡФñꥹȤ롥ΥѥΤϡ桼ID᤹Сؤ CQP (Corpus Query Processor) system ꥢǤ롥
BE06 AmE06 ϡ2006ǯ˽Ǥ줿ꥹѼȥꥫѼνնѹեѥǤ롥Ի乽ϡ#428. The Brown family of corpora Ѿա ([2010-06-29-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 The Brown family ˽सƤꡤ500ƥȡ2000η100ۤɤεϤ
ơΥڡɤǤ BE06 Wordlist in WordSmith 5 format AmE06 Wordlist in WordSmith 5 format ʸФǤϤʤ˸ˤɽФ줾ǡ١ơѼθ٤ӤƤ AmE-BrE Frequency 2006 Comparer ʤġƤߤ
acknowledgment, acknowledgement, aging, ageing, aluminum, aluminium, analyze, analyse, apologize, apologise, armor, armour, behavior, behaviour, center, centre, civilization, civilisation, color, colour, defense, defence, disk, disc, endeavor, endeavour, favor, favour, favorite, favourite, fiber, fibre, flavor, flavour, fulfill, fulfil, gray, grey, harbor, harbour, honor, honour, humor, humour, inquiry, enquiry, judgment, judgement, labor, labour, license, licence, liter, litre, marvelous, marvellous, mold, mould, mom, mum, neighbor, neighbour, neighborhood, neighbourhood, odor, odour, organize, organise, pajamas, pyjamas, parlor, parlour, program, programme, realize, realise, recognize, recognise, skeptic, sceptic, specter, spectre, sulfur, sulphur, theater, theatre, traveler, traveller, tumor, tumour
ޤǤϡäֻ˴ؤƺΥѥˤӤϡ#708. Frequency Sorter CGI ([2011-04-05-1]) ѤꡤBNC Frequency Extractor ([2012-12-08-1]) ȡ#1322. ANC Frequency Extractor ([2012-12-09-1]) Ȥ߹碌ꡤthe Brown Family corpora ʻѤʤɡѼ拾ѥθӤˤн褷ƤΥġˤ¿ʴĶǤ
#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) ǡꥫθؼԡؼ Swadesh (1909--67) ǯؤߤŪȤʤΤϡ"the fundamental everyday vocabulary of any language---as against the specialized or 'cultural' vocabulary---changes at a relatively constant rate" (452) ȤΤSwadesh ʣθĴ˴Ťΰ®٤86%ǤȤߤƤ롥ιͤˤ͡ȽФƤ뤬˼ȤƤ⡤ʤ®٤ȤΤꤦΤȤ礭꤬Ĥ롥ܸä®٤ִƤ椯Ȥ˴ؤ븶ŪˤĤơSwadesh ȤϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Why does the fundamental vocabulary change at a constant rate? . . . . / A language is a highly complex system of symbols serving a vital communicative function in society. The symbols are subject to change by the influence of many circumstances, yet they cannot change too fast without destroying the intelligibility of language. If the factors leading to change are great enough, they will keep the rate of change up to the maximum permitted by the communicative function of language. We have, as it were, a powerful motor kept in check by a speed regulating mechanism. . . . / While it is subject to manifold impulses toward change, language still must maintain a considerable amount of uniformity. If it is to be mutually intelligible among the members of the community, there must be a large element of agreement in its details among the individuals who make up the community. As between the oldest and the youngest generations, there are often difference of vocabulary and usage but these are never so great as to make it impossible for the two groups to understand each other. This is the circumstance which sets a maximum limit on the speed of change in language. / Acquisition of additional vocabulary may proceed at a faster rate than the replacement of old words. Replacement in culture vocabulary usually goes with the introduction of new cultural traits replacing the old ones, a process which at times may be completed in a few generations. Replacement of fundamental vocabulary must be slower because the concepts (e.g., body parts) do not change fundamentally. Change can come about by the introduction of partial synonyms which only rarely, and even then for the most part gradually, expand their area and frequency of usage to the point of replacing the earlier word. (459--60)
ϴøäִ®٤ΤȤͤ˸³뤳Ȥ˴ؤƤθŪˤϤʤäƤ뤬ʤ86%ȤۤܰͤȤΤȤ䤤ˤƤʤ褦˻פ롥ᤤ٤⤢뤬ʤ餻ФΤ餤ˤʤȤиŪʵҤˤȤɤޤȤȤ
ޤglottochronology ȤƤΤϡ²η˼褦ʡλŪϢ³Ǥ롥٤θܿβȤƤΥԥ (pidginisation) λʤɤθȡ嵭ηϤޤѤʤǥǤޤ褦ʸˤĤƤϴøäִΰ®٤뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ֤ƱŬѤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤǤϤʤơԤθϡԥθ#1397. ³ʿեǥ ([2013-02-22-1]) 褦ˡˤˤƤϡޤꤵƤ⤺ä̤ΤȤǤäǽ⤤
glottochronology ϡǥǤޤ褦ʸ˴ؤ¤ˤƤϡʤȤŪ˶̣ǤꤦȻפΤ褦ʸĤɾͤϤΤǤϤʤ
Swadesh, Morris. "Lexico-Statistic Dating of Prehistoric Ethnic Contacts: With Special Reference to North American Indians and Eskimos." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 96 (1952): 452--63.
ѸˤμȤDZѸ줬ФƤѲ⤹ȡָϤɤɤѲƤƤפȤȿȤΤۤ¿ϡ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]) (2) ˵ָѲϤΨŪʾ֤ؤδʿǤפƱΤǤꡤѤȤǤƤ֤٤Τ⤷ʤεǤҤ٤ȤꡤѲϿǤǤʤȤΤθؼԤθǤ롥ȤĤƤϡ̾ʸؼԤΤʤˤ⡤ѤȾԤǥޡαѸؼ Otto Jespersen (1860--1943) ⤽1ͤǤ롥
. . . in all those instances in which we are able to examine the history of any language for a sufficient length of time, we find that languages have a progressive tendency. But if languages progress towards greater perfection, it is not in a bee-line, nor are all the changes we witness to be considered steps in the right direction. The only thing I maintain is that the sum total of these changes, when we compare a remote period with the present time, shows a surplus of progressive over retrogressive or indifferent changes, so that the structure of modern languages is nearer perfection than that of ancient languages, if we take them as wholes instead of picking out at random some one or other more or less significant detail. And of course it must not be imagined that progress has been achieved through deliberate acts of men conscious that they were improving their mother-tongue. On the contrary, many a step in advance has at first been a slip or even a blunder, and, as in other fields of human activity, good results have only been won after a good deal of bungling and 'muddling along.' (326)
. . . we cannot be blind to the fact that modern languages as wholes are more practical than ancient ones, and that the latter present so many more anomalies and irregularities than our present-day languages that we may feel inclined, if not to apply to them Shakespeare's line, "Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms," yet to think that the development has been from something nearer chaos to something nearer kosmos. (366)
Jespersen ɤΤ褦ˤƸѤĤ˻äΤࡼʥ (84--85) ϡJespersen 1928ǯ Novial ȤФطʤʬϤΤ褦ɾƤNovial ˤĤƤϡ#958. 19Ⱦ³Ƚи ([2011-12-11-1]) ȡˡ
बؤɤ夤ΤϤۤοͤξ⤤äߤΤǤꡤޤΤʤˤäȤŤ顤äȤƤΰĤΤǤäȤΤϡθΨ֤ηкӤƤߤФ褤ȤͤǤ롥ˤĤŤΤϡʿŪˤϡǤդΰˤĤƤߤƤ⤢ȤˤĤƤߤƤ⡤鸫ȡθѲ¤Ԥθ¤꾡äƤΤȤͤǤ롽ϡäȤŪ˳ǧƤȾΤ뤽Τ褦ʡֿפȤƼΤ褦ʤΤƤ롥ʤŪȤñ㲽뤳ȡɽǽͤû̡ʬŪĤޤŪ¤ȯãμͳʥˤ֤ε§ζŪʿ̴ˤǤ롥ʡظο⡤ä˱Ѹȹ礷ơ١ˡޥƥͤߤȤ˸ƤȤäȤΤˤϤԤΤʤˤ桼ȥԥָΤ뤷Ȥ⸫ʤħ¤ȿФˡɥĤʸˡˤäƹƤäФȤƤϤäѤ襤äΤȹͤƸȡ¤˶ŪǼ襤ȤΤϡδʲϤޤäƤ˻ĺ˰֤ƤꡤˤϤĤͤ˷֤ȹ¤ѻˤǤ롤Ȥäʡָθס
ĤޤꡤJespersen ϡʤƾʤ餺ߤˤϤäƤָѲϴʾ֤δǤפȤѤйơѤǤФȤȤˤʤ롥ػŪˤ Jespersen ɾǤϤʤ
ˤҤ٤褦ˡJespersen ήθѤϡߤθؤǤϰŪ˼ƤʤˤĤơ#448. Vendryes ۩ָѲϿǤϤʤס ([2010-07-19-1]) ڤӡ#1382. ָѲϤѲǤס ([2013-02-07-1]) ȡ
Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
른塦ࡼʥƣ θء١ҡ2001ǯ
#841. yod-dropping ([2011-08-16-1]) ڤӡ#1562. Χߤ yod-dropping ([2013-08-06-1]) εǡ/juː/ /uː/ ѲƤ벻ߤβϤǤ /juː/ ϤĤɤΤ褦ȯΤ
Ĵ٤ƤߤȡȤƤϽѸΤȤ餷/juː/ ϡΩ /ɪʊ/ ܤƾ徺2첻 (rising diphthong) ȤʤäΤȹͤ뤬 /ɪʊ/ ΤϡѸˤ (1) /ɛʊ/ 1Ǥξ夲ͳ褹Τȡ(2) ե /yː/ ִΤޤ /ɪʊ/ η³ˤΤȤ˶̤롥 (171, 291) ꡤñ
(1) beauty, dew, deuce, ewe, ewer, few, fewter (the rest for a lance), feud, hew, lewd, mew, neuter, newt, Newton, pew, pewter, sewer, shew, strew, spew, sleuth, shrew, sew (juice), shrewd, thew (custom)
(2) allude, accuse, ague, adieu, allusion, brew, blue, blew (pt.), bruise, brute, clew, chew, cube, conclude, confuse, cruel, confusion, crew, due, drew, duke, excuse, eschew, fruit, flute, fume, funeral, fluid, fuel, grew, glue, humor, hue, humility, issue, Jew, jewel, juice, June, July, jute, knew, lunatic, lute, leeward, lieu, luminous, minute, Mathew, mutilate, new, newel, pseudonym, puny, prune, prudent, plume, rude, rule, refute, refuse, ruin, rumour, refuse (n.), rue, ruth, resolution, ModE shugar (sugar), ModE shue (sue), ModE shure (sure), sinew, ModE shute (suit), salute, solution, tulip, truce, threw, true, truth, Tuesday, tunic, tune, u, use, union, usage, usuary, usurer, view, yew, youth; ModE aventure, aventurous, creature, measure, nature, virtue, fortune, rescue, nephew, multitude, Hebrew, eschew, deluge, curfew, Andrew, absolute, ambiguous, Bartholomew
/ɪʊ/ /juː/ ؤѲϡָƬǤ1560ǯϤޤ1640ǯˤϤʤ̤Ȥʤסp. 290ˡθɤ³18ˤϳΩ褦
ʤ/r/ ³ /juːr/ ϡƱͤѸ /ɪʊr/, /ɛʊr/ ͳ褷Τ褦ʸޤࡥcure, curate, curio, curious, curiosity, conjure, dure, endure, Europe, ewer, fury, figure, immure, jury, lure, luxurious, mature, measure, nature, natural, obscure, pure, purity, procure, plural, premature, secure, sure, surety sewer, your.
Ϣơ#199. <U> Ϥʤ /ju:/ ȯ뤫 ([2009-11-12-1]) ε⻲ȡȤ櫓 shew βֻȯãˤĤƤϡ#1415. shew show (1) ([2013-03-12-1]) ȡ
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
ؤ˷ (morphology) ȸƤФʬ뤬̾ʶ路ŬڤǤȻפäƤ롥ȤΤϡظˤƷ֤ȤѸϰۤʤ2Ĥΰ̣Ѥ뤫
1Ĥϡ嵭η䤽줬 (morpheme) άȤƤΡַ֡פǤ롥θؤǤϡ̾갷ñ̤礭ˤäƲ (phonology) (morphology) (syntax) ̤뤬2ܤñ̤Ȥơַ֡פ롥
⤦1Ĥϡ̣뤤ϵǽ֤ΤȤƤΡַ֡פǤ롥ϷȸƤ褤ΰ̣ˤƤϡǡǡ졤硤ᡤʸʸϤʤɤñ̤Ϥַ֡פĤȤˤʤ롥
Ρַ֡פκϡUllmann Ƥظɽ魯ޤˤƤϡäƤ롥ʲڥ (124) ˷ǺܤƤޤƸ롥

ǤϡȤ٥ϰ̣֤ΤȤͿƤ롥ΤΤˤϸȤ٥뤬ŽƤ롥ȤѸλȤܲƤ뤿ˡäȤˤߤ롥θؤιѸȤϡ#1110. Guiraud ˤؤι ([2012-05-11-1]) ˤ̤롥
ʤUllmann οޤǤ3ܤȤ̻֤ȶ֤̤Ƥꡤ̻֤֤ǵͿƤ롥Ūʸؤι⡤Ūɾ뤳ȤǤ롥
ڥ Ϻⳤ ϯ δ Ͳ ظء١ҡʸ˥ӡ1972ǯ
#1721. 2ĤθȤϲ ([2014-01-12-1]) ³2Τˤߤͤ롥Meillet ϡθϤǤϤʤäθϡ뤤üԶƱΤΰռȤϤ顤롥ڥ (90) ˥ᥤΰʲΰѤ롥
ָο²طΤŪ¤Ǥ롥ǽθ줬äƤȤܤθ줬äƤȤȤΤ˴ޤޤ뤢ǡ䤨ä礿ƱθäƤȤȰջ֤ȤĤŤƤȤˡȤθϤޤθ줫ФΤǤȤġĤΤ褦ˤƱθ줫Ф٤Ƥθϡߤ˿²طˤ롥äƿ²طϡäѤñȤռ³뤳Ȥͳ褹ΤǤ롥
ϡӸؼԤ˼Ƥ븫Ȥ
#1721. Pisani ۩ָϤǤס ([2014-01-13-1]) ˤ褦ˡʣȤϤȤߤʤ Pisani θϡηϤΤΤˤͤˤͭȤǤϡüԤ䶦ƱΤ¸ߴǤ롥Meillet θϡüԤ䶦ƱΤȤΤȤ館Ǥ롥ƱäƤȤСƱäƤȤФüԤˤθŪϢ³ƱݾڤƤ롥Meillet ϡ֤üԤΤĵ°ռ˴ѤʤƤΤMeillet 餷ƼҲŪʲǤ롥
˴ؤ¤ Pisani Meillet θΩƤ뤬ξԤ˶̤Ƥ褦˻פΤϡ̾դ줿̤θϥեǤȤȤ㤨СܸܸȸƤФƤΤϡθŪʽħǤϤʤȤ͡ΰռǤ롥ѼϥեǤȤ⤤ˤĤƤϡ#415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1]) Ȥ줿ޤϢơ#1358. ȤФˤȤϲˤ ([2013-01-14-1]) ⻲ȡ
ڥ Ϻⳤ ϯ δ Ͳ ظء١ҡʸ˥ӡ1972ǯ
ε#1723. åץˤ2Ÿ ([2014-01-14-1]) ˰³٤ Skeat θ츻ŵ (748--51) ˷ǺܤƤ2Ÿ (doublet) 褦ˡSkeat (748) 2ŸǤ褦
Doublets are words which, though apparently differing in form, are nevertheless, from an etymological point of view, one and the same, or only differ in some unimportant suffix. Thus aggrieve is from L. aggrauāre; whilst aggravate, though really from the pp. aggrauātus, is nevertheless used as a verb, precisely as aggrieve is used, though the senses of the words have been differentiated.
Ǥϡʲ645Ȥ2ŸǤ롥ʤʤܥ֥ˡֺ doubletץʡߤƤߤޤ
| abbreviate | abridge |
| abet | bet |
| acajou | cashew |
| adamant | diamond |
| adventure | venture |
| advocate | avouch, avow |
| aggrieve | aggravate |
| ait | eyot |
| alarm | alarum |
| allocate | allow |
| ameer | emir, omrah |
| amiable | amicable |
| an | one |
| ancient | ensign |
| announce | annunciate |
| ant | emmet |
| anthem | antiphon |
| antic | antique |
| appal | pall |
| appeal (sb) | peal |
| appear | peer |
| appraise | appreciate |
| apprentice | prentice |
| aptitude | attitude |
| arc | arch |
| army | armada |
| arrack | rack, raki |
| asphodel | daffodil |
| assay | essay |
| assemble | assimilate |
| assess | assize (vb) |
| assoil | absolve |
| attach | attack |
| attire | tire, tire |
| bale | ball |
| balm | balsam |
| band | bond |
| banjo | mandoline |
| barb | bard |
| base | basis |
| bashaw | pasha |
| baton | batten |
| bawd | bold |
| beadle | bedell |
| beaker | pitcher |
| beef | cow |
| beldam | belladonna |
| bench | bank, bank |
| benison | benediction |
| blame | blaspheme |
| boil | bile |
| boss | botch |
| bough | bow |
| bound | bourn |
| bower | byre |
| bowl | bull |
| box | pyx, bush |
| brave | bravo |
| breve | brief |
| brother | friar |
| brown | bruin |
| buff | buffalo |
| cadence | chance |
| caitiff | captive |
| caldron, cauldron | chaldron |
| caliber | caliver |
| calumny | challenge |
| camera | chamber |
| cancer | canker |
| cannon | canon |
| caravan | van |
| card | chart, carte |
| case | chase, cash |
| cask | casque |
| castigate | chasten |
| catch | chase |
| cattle | chattels, capital |
| cavalier | chevalier |
| cavalry | chivalry |
| cess | assess |
| chaise | chair |
| chalk | calx |
| champaign | campaign |
| channel | canal, kennel |
| chant | cant |
| chapiter | capital |
| charge | cark, cargo |
| chateau | castle |
| cheat | escheat |
| check (sb) | shah |
| chicory | succory |
| chief | cape |
| chieftain | captain |
| chirurgeon | surgeon |
| choir | chorus, quire |
| choler | cholera |
| chord | cord |
| chuck | shock, shog |
| church | kirk |
| cipher | zero |
| cist | chest |
| cithern | guitar, gittern, kit |
| cive | chive |
| clause | close (sb) |
| climate | clime |
| coffer | coffin |
| coin | coign, quoin |
| cole | kail |
| collect | cull, coil (vb) |
| collocate | couch |
| comfit | confect |
| commend | command |
| commodore | commander |
| complacent | complaisant |
| complete (vb) | comply |
| compost | composite |
| comprehend | comprise |
| compute | count |
| conduct (sb) | conduit |
| confound | confuse |
| construe | construct |
| convey | convoy |
| cool | gelid |
| corn | grain |
| corn | horn |
| coronation | carnation |
| corral | kraal |
| corsair | hussar |
| costume | custom |
| cot | cote |
| couple (vb) | copulate |
| coy | quiet, quit, quite |
| coy | cage |
| crape | crisp |
| cream | chrism |
| crease | crest |
| crevice | crevasse |
| crib | cratch |
| crimson | carmine |
| crop | coup |
| crowd | rote |
| crypt | grot |
| cud | quid |
| cue | queue |
| curari | wourali |
| curricle | curriculum |
| curtle-axe | cutlass |
| cycle | wheel |
| dace | dart, dare |
| dainty | dignity |
| dame | dam, donna, duenna |
| dan | don, domino |
| dauphin | dolphin |
| deck | thatch |
| defence | fence |
| defend | fend |
| delay | dilate |
| dell | dale |
| demesne | domain |
| dent | dint |
| deploy | display, splay |
| depot | deposit (sb) |
| descry | describe |
| desiderate | desire (vb) |
| despite | spite |
| deuce | two |
| devilish | diabolic |
| die | dado |
| direct (vb) | dress |
| dish | disc, desk, daïs |
| disport | sport |
| distain | stain |
| ditch | dike |
| ditto | dictum |
| diurnal | journal |
| doge | duke |
| doit | thwaite |
| dole | deal (sb) |
| dominion | dungeon |
| doom | -dom (suffix) |
| dragon | dragoon |
| dropsy | hydropsy |
| due | debt |
| dune | down |
| eatable | edible |
| éclat | slate |
| elf | oaf, ouphe |
| élite | elect |
| emerald | smaragdus |
| emerods | hemorrhoids |
| employ | imply, implicate |
| endow | endue, indue |
| engine | gin |
| entire | integer |
| envious | invidious |
| escape | scape |
| eschew | shy (vb) |
| escutcheon | scutcheon |
| especial | special |
| espy | spy |
| esquire | squire |
| establish | stablish |
| estate | state, status |
| estimate | esteem |
| estop | stop |
| estreat | extract |
| etiquette | ticket |
| example | ensample, sample |
| exemplar | sampler |
| extraneous | strange |
| fabric | forge (sb) |
| fact | feat |
| faculty | facility |
| fan | van |
| fancy | fantasy, phantasy |
| fashion | faction |
| fat | vat |
| fauteuil | faldstool |
| fealty | fidelity |
| feeble | foible |
| fell | pell |
| fester (sb) | fistula |
| feud | fief, fee |
| feverfew | febrifuge |
| fiddle | viol |
| fife | pipe, peep |
| finch | spink |
| finite | fine |
| fitch | vetch |
| flag | flake, flaw |
| flower | flour |
| flush | flux |
| foam | spume |
| font | fount |
| force | farce |
| foremost | prime |
| foster | forester |
| fragile | frail |
| fray | affray |
| fro | from |
| frounce | flounce |
| fungus | sponge |
| furl | fardel |
| gabble | jabber |
| gad | ged |
| gaffer | grandfather |
| gage | wage |
| gambado | gambol |
| game | gammon |
| gaol | jail |
| garth | yard |
| gear | garb |
| genteel | gentle, gentile |
| genus | kin |
| germ | germen |
| gig | jig |
| gin | juniper |
| gird | gride |
| girdle | girth |
| glamour | gramarye |
| grain | corn |
| granary | garner |
| grece, grise | grade |
| guarantee (sb) | warranty |
| guard | ward |
| guardian | warden |
| guest | host |
| guile | wile |
| guise | wise |
| gullet | gully |
| gust | gusto |
| guy | guide (sb) |
| gypsy | Egyptian |
| hackbut | arquebus |
| hale | whole |
| hamper | hanaper |
| harangue | ring, rank, rink |
| hash (vb) | hatch |
| hatchment | achievement |
| hautboy | oboe |
| heap | hope |
| heckle | hackle, hatchel |
| hemi- | semi- |
| hent | hint |
| history | story |
| hock | hough |
| hoop | whoop |
| hospital | hostel, hotel, spital, spittle |
| hub | hob |
| human | humane |
| hyacinth | jacinth |
| hydra | otter |
| hyper- | super- |
| hypo- | sub- |
| illumine | limn |
| inapt | inept |
| inch | ounce |
| indite | indict |
| influence | influenza |
| innocuous | innoxious |
| invite | vie |
| invoke | invocate |
| iota | jot |
| isolate | insulate |
| jaggery | sugar |
| jealous | zealous |
| jinn | genie |
| joint | junta, junto |
| jointure | juncture |
| jut | jet |
| jutty | jetty |
| ketch | catch |
| label | lapel, lappet |
| lac | lake |
| lace | lasso |
| lair | leaguer |
| lake | loch, lough |
| lateen | Latin |
| launch, lanch | lance (vb) |
| leal | loyal, legal |
| lection | lesson |
| lib | glib |
| lieu | locus |
| limb | limbo |
| limbeck | alembic |
| lineal | linear |
| liquor | liqueur |
| list | lust |
| load | lode |
| lobby | lodge |
| locust | lobster |
| lone | alone |
| losel | lorel |
| lurch | lurk |
| madam | madonna |
| major | mayor |
| male | masculine |
| malediction | malison |
| mandate | maundy |
| mangle | mangonel |
| manœuvre | manure |
| march | mark, marque |
| margin | margent, marge |
| marish | morass |
| maul | mall |
| mauve | mallow |
| maxim | maximum |
| mazer | mazzard |
| mean | mesne, mizen |
| memory | memoir |
| mentor | monitor |
| metal | mettle |
| milt | milk |
| minim | minimum |
| minster | monastery |
| mint | money |
| mister | master |
| mob | mobile, movable |
| mode | mood |
| mohair | moire |
| moment | momentum, movement |
| monster | muster |
| morrow | morn |
| moslem | mussulman |
| mould | module |
| munnion | mullion |
| musket | mosquito |
| naive | native |
| naked | nude |
| name | noun |
| natron | nitre |
| naught, nought | not |
| nausea | noise |
| neat | net |
| nias | eyas |
| noyau | newel |
| obedience | obeisance |
| octave | utas |
| of | off |
| onion | union |
| oration | orison |
| ordinance | ordnance |
| orpiment | orpine |
| osprey | ossifrage |
| otto | attar |
| ouch | nouch |
| outer | utter |
| overplus | surplus |
| paddle | spatula |
| paddock | park |
| pain (vb) | pine |
| paladin | palatine |
| pale | pallid, fallow |
| palette | pallet |
| paper | papyrus |
| parade | parry |
| paradise | parvis |
| paralysis | palsy |
| parole | parable, parle, palaver |
| parson | person |
| pass | pace |
| pastel | pastille |
| pasty | patty |
| pate | plate |
| patron | pattern |
| pause | pose |
| pawn | pane, vane |
| paynim | paganism |
| peer | appear |
| peise | poise |
| pelisse | pilch |
| pellitory | paritory |
| penance | penitence |
| peregrine | pilgrim |
| peruke | periwig, wig |
| pewter | spelter |
| phantasm | phantom |
| piazza | place |
| pick | peck, pitch (vb) |
| picket | piquet |
| piety | pity |
| pigment | pimento |
| pike | peak, pick (sb), pique (sb), spike |
| pippin | pip |
| pistil | pestle |
| pistol | pistole |
| plaintiff | plaintive |
| plait | pleat, plight |
| plan | plain, plane, llano |
| plateau | platter |
| plum | prune |
| poignant | pungent |
| point | punt |
| poison | potion |
| poke | pouch |
| pole | pale, pawl |
| pomade, pommade | pomatum |
| pomp | pump |
| poor | pauper |
| pope | papa |
| porch | portico |
| posy | poesy |
| potent | puissant |
| poult | pullet |
| pounce | punch |
| pounce | pumice |
| pound | pond |
| pound | pun (vb) |
| power | posse |
| praise | price |
| preach | predicate |
| premier | primero |
| priest | presbyter |
| private | privy |
| probe (sb) | proof |
| proctor | procurator |
| prolong | purloin |
| prosecute | pursue |
| provide | purvey |
| provident | prudent |
| punch | punish |
| puny | puisne |
| purl | profile |
| purpose | propose |
| purview | proviso |
| quartern | quadroon |
| queen | quean |
| raceme | raisin |
| rack | wrack, wreck |
| radix | radish, race, root, wort |
| raid | road |
| rail | rally |
| raise | rear |
| ramp | romp |
| ransom | redemption |
| rapine | ravine, raven |
| rase | raze |
| ratio | ration, reason |
| ray | radius |
| rayah | ryot |
| rear-ward | rear-guard |
| reave | rob |
| reconnaissance | recognisance |
| regal | royal, real |
| relic | relique |
| renegade | runagate |
| renew | renovate |
| reprieve | reprove |
| residue | residuum |
| respect | respite |
| revenge | revindicate |
| reward | regard |
| rhomb, rhombus | rumb |
| ridge | rig |
| rod | rood |
| rondeau | roundel |
| rote | route, rout, rut |
| round | rotund |
| rouse | row |
| rover | robber |
| sack | sac |
| sacristan | sexton |
| saw | saga |
| saxifrage | sassafras |
| scabby | shabby |
| scale | shale |
| scandal | slander |
| scar, scaur | share |
| scarf | scrip, scrap |
| scatter | shatter |
| school | shoal, scull |
| scot(free) | shot |
| screen | shriek |
| screed | shred |
| screw | shrew |
| scur | scour |
| scuttle | skillet |
| sect, sept, set | suite, suit |
| sennet | signet |
| separate | sever |
| sequin | sicca |
| sergeant, serjeant | servant |
| settle | sell, saddle |
| shammy | chamois |
| shark | search |
| shawm, shalm | haulm |
| sheave | shive |
| shed | shade |
| shirt | skirt |
| shrub | sherbet, syrup |
| shuffle | scuffle |
| sicker, siker | secure, sure |
| sine | sinus |
| sir, sire | senior, seignior, señor, signor |
| size, size | assise |
| skewer | shiver |
| skiff | ship |
| skirmish | scrimmage, scaramouch |
| slabber | slaver |
| sleight | sloid |
| sleuth | slot |
| slobber | slubber |
| sloop | shallop |
| snivel | snuffle |
| snub | snuff |
| soil | sole, sole |
| soprano | sovereign |
| sough | surf |
| soup | sup |
| souse | sauce |
| spade | spade |
| species | spice |
| spell | spill |
| spend | dispend |
| spirit | sprite, spright |
| spoor | spur |
| spray | sprig, asparagus |
| sprit | sprout (sb) |
| sprout (vb) | spout |
| spry | spark |
| squall | squeal |
| squinancy | quinsy |
| squire | square |
| stank | tank |
| stave | staff |
| steer | Taurus |
| still | distil |
| stock | tuck |
| stove | stew (sb) |
| strait | strict |
| strap | strop |
| stress | distress |
| superficies | surface |
| supersede | surcease |
| suppliant | supplicant |
| sweep | swoop |
| tabor | tambour |
| tache | tack |
| taint | attaint |
| tamper | temper |
| tarpauling | tar |
| task | tax |
| taunt | tempt, tent |
| tawny | tenny |
| tease | tose |
| tee | taw |
| teind | tithe, tenth |
| tend | tender |
| tense | toise |
| tercel | tassel |
| thread | thrid |
| thrill, thirl | drill |
| tine | tooth |
| tippet | tape |
| tit | teat |
| title | tittle |
| to | too |
| ton | tun |
| tone | tune |
| tour | turn |
| tow | tug |
| town | down |
| track | trick |
| tract | trait |
| tradition | treason |
| travail | travel |
| treble | triple |
| trifle | truffle |
| tripod | trivet |
| triumph | trump |
| troth | truth |
| tuck | tug |
| tuck | touch |
| tulip | turban |
| tweak | twitch |
| umbel | umbrella |
| unity | unit |
| ure | opera |
| vade | fade |
| vair | various |
| valet | varlet |
| vantage | advantage |
| vast | waste |
| vaward | vanguard |
| veal | wether |
| veldt | field |
| veneer | furnish |
| venew, veney | venue |
| verb | word |
| vermeil | vermillion |
| vertex | vortex |
| vervain | verbena |
| viaticum | voyage |
| viper | wyvern, wivern |
| visor | vizard |
| vizier, visier | alguazil |
| vocal | vowel |
| wain | wagon, waggon |
| wale | weal |
| wattle | wallet |
| weet | wit |
| whirl | warble |
| wight | whit |
| wold | weald |
| yelp | yap |
ܥ֥Ǥ2Ÿ (doublet) ˴ؤ뵭¿ƤäƤǤ롥åץθ츻ŵδˡ2Ÿʤ3Ÿʾ¿ŸˤΥꥹȤܤäƤΤǡʲžܤ롥ˡåץ (708) ˤ2ŸƤ
ŸȤϡƱ츻θդۤʤäϩФƱѸˤʤäȤθաʤ뤤ϤȤΰˤ̣롥Ϥ˿Τǡθ츻ϩɤȻפС٤ OED ʡإåեɱѸ缭ŵ١ˤǸ뤳ȤǤŸ줫顤Ѹ˭ȡդˤĤƤΤޤޤʶ̣äɤ뤳ȤǤ롥Ÿˤϡ츻ƱǤʤ顤ΰ̣ϸߤ礤˰ۤʤΤ롥
Ǥϡʲ126Ȥ2ŸǤ롥
| abbreviate ά | abridge ṳ̂ | |||
| acute ä | cute ʤ襤 | ague ʷ㤷Ǯ۰ | ||
| adamant ʹľʡ | diamond ʥɡ | |||
| adjutant ʽΡ | aid ʼ | |||
| aggravate ʤ˰ | aggrieve ᤷޤ | |||
| aim | esteem ºŤ | estimate ɾ | ||
| allocate ʳƤ | allow ֤ | |||
| alloy ʹ | ally Ʊ | |||
| an ʰĤΡ괧 | one ʰĤΡ | |||
| antic ʤäʤ | antique ʸŽ | |||
| appreciate ʹ⤯ɾ | appraise ʤĤ | apprize ºŤ | ||
| aptitude Ŭ | attitude ١ | |||
| army ʷ | armada ʴ | |||
| asphodel ʡԻե | daffodil ʥåѥ | |||
| assemble ʽ礵 | assimilate ʾòۼ | |||
| astound ʶŷ | astonish ʶä | stun Ȥ | ||
| attach Žդ | attack ʹ⤹ | |||
| band ʥХɡ | bond ʤʡ | |||
| banjo ʥХ硼 | mandolin ʥޥɥ | |||
| bark ʥС | barge ʿ | |||
| beaker ʥӡ | pitcher ʥԥå㡼 | |||
| beam ¡ | boom ʡڳ | |||
| belly ʢ | bellows ʤդ | |||
| benison ʽʡε | benediction ʽʡ | |||
| blame | blaspheme 瀆 | |||
| block 礭ʲ | plug | |||
| book ܡ | buck(wheat) ʥС | beech ʥ֥ʡ | ||
| boulevard ʹƻ | bulwark ݡ | |||
| brother ʷ | friar ȭƻΡ | |||
| cadet ʻŴ | cad ʰΰˡ | |||
| cadence ҡ | chance ʶ | |||
| cage Ļ | cave ƶ | |||
| calumny | challenge ĩ | |||
| cancel ʼä | chancel ʡԶƲΡء | |||
| cant ʵŪⶵ | chant ʱӾ | |||
| captain ʼΡ | chieftain ʡԻ±ʤɤΡդ | |||
| cavalry ʵʼ | chivalry ʵƻ | |||
| cell ʡȿΡմȿ | hall ʥۡ | |||
| charge ô롤᤹ | cargo ١ | |||
| chariot ʡϤǰ֡ | cart ʲϼ֡ | |||
| chattel ʡˡΧư | cattle ܵ | capital ʻܡ | ||
| check ˻ߤ롤ڥ۲ | shah ʥ | |||
| costume | custom ʴ | |||
| crate ʤ勞Ȣ | hurdle ʥϡɥ | |||
| daft ʤФʡ | deft ʴѤʡ | |||
| dainty ʾʤʡ | dignity ʰҸ | |||
| danger ʴ | dominion ʻ۸ | |||
| dauphin ʡˡۡԥեΡղҡ | dolphin ʥ륫 | |||
| deck ʥǥå | thatch ʤ | |||
| defeat 餫 | defect ʷ١ | |||
| depot ־ | deposit ¶ | |||
| devilish ʰΤ褦ʡ | diabolical ʼٰʡ | |||
| diaper ¿̤˾ͤˤ | jasper ˶̡ | |||
| disc ʥ쥳ɡ | discus ʱס | dish ʻ | dais ʱš | desk ʴ |
| ditto Ʊ | dictum ʸ | |||
| employ ʸۤ | imply ʰŤ˰̣ | implicate ʰŤ˼ | ||
| ensign ʷ | insignia ʵϡ | |||
| etiquette ʥåȡ | ticket | |||
| extraneous ʳΡ | strange ʴ̯ʡ | |||
| fabric ʿʪ | forge | |||
| fact ʻ¡ | feat ʰζȡ | |||
| faculty ʺǽ | facility ưפ | |||
| fashion ʥեå | faction ȶ | |||
| feeble ʼ夤 | foible ʡȤΤռ | |||
| flame ʱ | phlegm | |||
| flask ʥե饹 | fiasco ʴʼԡ | |||
| flour ʾʴ | flower ʲ֡ | |||
| fungus ʶ | sponge ʳʡ | |||
| genteel ʾʤ֤ä | gentle ͥ | gentile ʰ۶̤Ρ | jaunty ۵ʡ | |
| glamour ̥Ūʡ | grammar ʸˡ | |||
| guarantee ݾڡ | warranty ݾڡ¡ | |||
| hale ʷʡ | whole ΤΡ | |||
| inch ʥ | ounce ʥ | |||
| isolation ʸΩ | insulation ʳΥ | |||
| jay ʥ | gay ƱΡʡ | |||
| kennel ʹ¡ | channel ʳ | canal ʱϡ | ||
| kin ʷ | genus ʡʬΡ° | |||
| lace Ҥ | lasso ꤲء | |||
| listen İ | lurk Ԥ | |||
| lobby ʥӡ | lodge ʻ | |||
| locust ʥХå | lobster ʥ | |||
| maneuver ʺư | manure 롨 | |||
| monetary ̲ߤΡ | monitory ʷٹΡ | |||
| monster ʲʪ | muster ʾ | |||
| musket ʥޥåȽơ | mosquito ʲ | |||
| naive ñʡ | native ޤ줿Ρ | |||
| onion ʥޥͥ | union ʷ | |||
| paddock ʾϡ | park ʸ | |||
| parable ʶá | parabola ʪ | parole ʼͱͽ | parley Ƥġ | palaver ʾ̡ |
| parson ʶһա | person ʿ͡ | |||
| particle ʬҡ | parcel ʾ | |||
| patron ʸԡ | pattern ͡ | |||
| piazza ʡԥꥢԻԤΡչϩ | place ʾ | plaza ʡʥڥԻԤʤɤΡ˹ | ||
| poignant ڤʡ | pungent ʿɤĤʡ | |||
| poison | potion ʡDZդΡհ | |||
| poor Ϥ | pauper ʸ | |||
| pope ʥġ | papa ʥѥѡ | |||
| praise ʤۤ | price ʲʡ | |||
| quiet Ťʡ | quit ʤ | quite ʤä | coy ⵤʡ | |
| raid ʽ | road ƻϩ | |||
| ransom ʿ | redemption 㤤ᤷ | |||
| ratio Ψ | ration ʳơ | reason ͳ | ||
| respect ºɤ | respite ʡԻŻʤɤΡվٻߡ | |||
| restrain | restrict ¤ | |||
| rover ϲԡ | robber ť | |||
| saliva ñա | slime ʤͤڡ̤ | |||
| scandal ѿ | slander | |||
| scourge ʤŷȳ | excoriate Ϥ | |||
| scout | auscultate İǤ | |||
| secure ʰʡ | sure ʼäơ | |||
| sergeant ʷ | servant ʻѿ͡ | |||
| sovereign ʼ縢ԡ | soprano ʥץΡ | |||
| stack ʴλ | stake ʹ | steak ʥơ | stock ߤ | |
| supervisor ʴԡ | surveyor ¬̼ԡ | |||
| tamper ʴĤ | temper ʵ | |||
| triumph ʾ | trump ʥȥס | |||
| tulip ʥ塼åס | turban ʥХ | |||
| two 2Ρ | deuce ʥ塼 | |||
| utter ʸ˽Ф | outer ʳ¦Ρ | |||
| valet ʶ | varlet ʽԡ | |||
| vast ʹʡ | waste ʹѤ | |||
| veneer ʥ٥˥ | furnish ʲȶ | |||
| verb ư | word ʸա | |||
| whirl | warble ʤ | |||
| yelp ʤ⤤夲 | yap ʥʤΩƤ | |||
| zero ʥ | cipher ʰŹ |
#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1]) #1579. ָϿʪǤפȡ ([2013-08-23-1]) εۤǡָϡǤפȤͻȤ⤤ϡ#449. Vendryes ۩ָǤס ([2010-07-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Vendryes Ȥϰۤʤ̣ǸʤȤϡˤȤƤؼԤΤǾҲ𤷤ε#1721. 2ĤθȤϲ ([2014-01-12-1]) Ƴ Pisani Ǥ롥
Pisani ϡǥǤѾȾǥǤѤȤΤͭյʶ̤ǧ᤺ξԤŪ (créations) Ȥ礷褦Ȥζ̤ȤäѤ餦ȤڤȤΥ礷ʥȤ (fleuve) ⤫Ǥήɤʣ˹ήʬ֤֤˱äƤҤή³ϤǤ롥
À vrai dire, le terme de parenté, avec les images qu'il reveille, porte à une vision erronée comme l'autre, qui y est connexée, de l'arbre généalogique. Une image beaucoup plus correspondante à la réalité des faits linguistiques pourrait être suggérée par un système hydrique compliqué: un fleuve qui rassemble l'eau de torrents et ruisseaux, à un certain moment se mêle avec un autre fleuve, puis se bifurque, chacun des deux bras continue à son tour à se mêler avec d'autres cours d'eau, peut-être aussi avec un ou plusieurs dérivés de son compagnon, il se forme des lacs dont de nouveaux fleuves se départent, et ainsi de suite. (13)
ϤʬʬϡϤϤȸƤФ뤬ϤϤλϤޤ꤬ɤʤΤ̤οϤϤȤζϤɤʤΤȤ䤤뤳ȤϤǤʤƱȤϤȤ줿ˤ⤤롥ȤʣʰϤΤʤǡɤʬޥϤȸƤФΤɤʬѸȸƤФΤ뤳ȤϤǤʤǤ뤳ȤȤС褽ʬصŪˤΥ٥Ž뤳Ȥ餤Τ褦˹ͤȡѸ˵ҤȤΤ⡤ϩΤ褦ʻήΤʤ顤ڤɮǤɤꡤ֤ϤѸʻˡˤǤפȸäƤȤˤʤ롥
Pisani, Vittore. "Parenté linguistique." Lingua 3 (1952): 3--16.
2ĤθΤˤߤȤطȤΤϡäؤƤΤ2֤δطİǥȤŪǥ (family_tree) Ⱦǥ (wave_theory) Ƥ2ĤΥǥδطΤоݤȤƤꡤޤξԤ礷ǥϺ³Ƥ롥##369,371,999,1118,1236,1302,1303,1313,1314 ۤŪǶǤϡ#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1]) #1397. ³ʿեǥ ([2013-02-22-1]) Ǥ˴ϢäƤϥꥢθؼ Pisani ʸȤƹͤƤߤ褦
Pisani ˤȤäơ2ĤθΤ (parenté) Ȥϡ̤ƤŪǤ¿ˤäƷޤ롥
. . . à chaque moment nous nous trouvons en présence d'une langue nouvelle constituée par la confluence et le mélange toujours divers d'éléments de provenance diverse dans les innombrables créations des individus parlants; et parenté linguistique n'est autre chose que la communauté d'éléments que l'on constate ainsi entre langue et langue. (14)
ñʸΤ褦ǥˤȾǥˤ⤢ƸڤʤտŪʸʤΤǤ롥ǥ˽СܤϡΩʳбܤŪȯŸΤȤ롥ǡȾǥ˽СܤϡܤбܤڤꤿΤǤȤ롥ξˤ⡤θܤϴ¸бܤ˲餫ΰ̣ǡֻƤפˤϰ㤤ʤɤΥǥˤΤֻۤƤפΤŪ˷뤳ȤϤǤʤʤСֻƤٹ礤¬ǡŪʴطŻ뤷Ƥ褤ͳʤСդȾŪʴطͥƤ褤ͳʤȤȤˤʤ롥
ѸξͤƤߤȡŪˤϷǥ˽äƥޥɤ°Ȥ뤬ä˸äΥޥ첽Ѹʹߤ˷㤷äΤǡȾǥ˽äơåɤˤƧƤȤ롥ĤޤꡤιԤϤäϡ§ȤƤϷǥιͤͥȤߤʤơŪ˥ޥɤ°ȾθȾǥιͤƳơŪ˥åŪǤ⤢ȾƤΤǤ롥ѸξˤϡŪ˭٤ʸĤäƤꡤˤѤλŪط⤢٤Ϥ狼äƤΤǡ嵭̤ͥǤȤ館ΤǤȤ䤹ŪʾۤȤʤˤơȲ餫٤ǻƤȤ¬ˤϡǥȤ뤳ȤǤʤȾǥȤ뤳ȤǤʤʡ#371. ƶɬ̤Ǥʤ ([2010-05-03-1]) ȡˡܤˤΤϡܤΤߤǤ롥
Pisani ϡSchuchardt ˤäƿƻҴطȼѴطΤ˰̣̤ǧ᤺٤ƤθϺ (Mischsprachen) ǤȤΩΩäơ2֤褦ȤΤǤʴϢơ#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) ⻲ȡˡ2֤θܤͳϡƻҴط⤷ʤѴط⤷ʤˤ褽줾θˤơΤ˲餫θŪߤ̤äƤΥƤꤷƤ˰㤤ʤפʤΤϸŪΤߤǤꡤPisani ϡ֤줾줬ͭŸȤġ̡βʲΤʤˤǧʤäפΤǤʥڥp. 89ˡ
Pisani, Vittore. "Parenté linguistique." Lingua 3 (1952): 3--16.
ڥ Ϻⳤ ϯ δ Ͳ ظء١ҡʸ˥ӡ1972ǯ
Ѹֻˤܥ֥Ǥ͡˰äƤŪˤϤ٤Ƥñ˰֤꤬ǧȤäƤǤϤʤShakespeare Ȥ⡤㳰ǤϤʤߤǤϡѸɤϡȤֻ˴ƤǤ뤬Ѹ˾ǧ֤70ʾ⤢롥
ιñǡshake + spear ʤפۤɤΰ̣Ǥ롥13̤뤳ȤΤǤŪǤ̾Ǥꡤ70ʾŪ֤Τʤˤϡ1248ǯʸڤ Shakespere ΤۤShaksper, Chacsper, Schakespere, Scakespeire, Saksper ʤɤޤޤ롥
David Kathman ȤԤȤˤȡ William Shakespeare (1564--1616) ȤƤϡ¸ΤΤȤơ25ΰ֤꤬ǧ줿Ȥ342ĤΤ6ʾ Shakespeare Shake-speare äȤ顤ߤֻŪˤ (?) ȤäƤ褤⤷ʤ
Crystal and Crystal (108) ˵Ƥ롤25ֻʲ褦
Schaksp, Shackespeare, Shackespere, Shackspeare, Shackspere, Shagspere, Shakespe, Shakespear, Shakespeare, Shake-speare, Shakespere, Shakespheare, Shakp, Shakspe?, Shakspear, Shakspeare, Shak-speare, Shaksper, Shakspere, Shaxberd, Shaxpeare, Shaxper, Shaxpere, Shaxspere, Shexpere
ʤȤ Shakespeare ˤ뼫6ĤäƤ뤬Τʤ˼5ֻ (Crystal 131) Shakp (1612ǯBelott-Mountjoy Deposition), Shakspe(r) (1613ǯGatehouse Conveyance), Shaksper (1613ǯGatehouse Mortgage), Shakspere (1616ǯfirst and second sheet of will), Shakspeare (1616ǯthird sheet of will) ⤷ȤˡΤʤ˸ߤɸŪֻϤʤ
Shakespeare λˤϡֻɸಽ塹ȿʹä夷ȤޤǤˤϤ⤦ǯɬפä17ȾФˤϤ褽夷궯ǤʴפǤޤǤˤ18ȾФ Johnson μԤͤФʤʤäȤ櫓ǤϤʤǤϡֻɤϤޤ㤷ä
ߤ Shakespeare ֻϡͤˤȤäƤ⽽ʬ§Ūֻ˸뤬¿ְ㤨ȤѤɬפϤʤShakespeare ȤȤäƤʤäǽϤ뤷ĤƤϤֻ⤢äΤȷڤήФ褤ʤ⤷ʤˤΤǡ
Crystal, David and Ben Crystal. The Shakespeare Miscellany. Woodstock & New York: The Overlook Press, 2005.
#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1]) ȡ#1718. Wales ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-09-1]) ³åȥɤαѸˤѤ褦 (Fennell 191--95)
åȥˤϥԥȿ (the Picts) ȸƤФ̱²ǤԥȿͤäΤʤΤȷϤθäƤΤ뤤äƤΤ¿ʸ (ogham) ȤäʸƤȤΤƤ롥
ɿ֥ͤƥάȤϳΤǤ롥ϥͤ Scoti ȸƤФ줿ԥȿͤ Scoti ͻ礷ä Alba βͤ Scotia ȸƤ줬 Scotland Ȥ̾εǤ롥Alba ϡ9ȾˤϤȤDun Eideann (Edinburgh) ޤ Tweed ˤޤǤ Lothian Ӥ۲ˤˤơ Northumbria αѸܤ뤳Ȥˤʤä11ȾüԤǤä Malcolm II (953?--1034) Macbeth (?--1057) ϥͤȤ襤˾ʹߡĹ֡Northumbria Scotland ȷӤĤ褦ˤʤä
Macbeth Malcolm III (1031?--93) ϡ˶岽褦Ȥη̤ȤơåȥɲDZѸ줬ҿ뤳ȤȤʤääơåȥɤǤ餫Ѹ줬岽ξħȤߤʤƤΤǤ롥ޤ William ˤ밵κǡ¿ΥɿͤåȥɤƨƤˡαѸüԿ
14ʹߡåȥɤ Balliol, Bruce, Stewart ȤϤ Lowland ˴פ֤Ƥˡ濴ϤϤޤǤΥä Highland Ѹǻ Lowland ؤȰư14ȾˤϡLowland αѸʸظȤƲֺ餭ϰ̤ϳμ¤ʤΤȤʤäƤ15ȾˤϡαѸ ɤˤ Inglis ȤϰۤʤѼȤ Scottis ȸƤФ褦ˤʤä䤳Ȥˡˤ Lowland αѸüԤϡHighland Υؤ "Scottish" ȸƤǤΤǤ롥Ǥ⡤åȥɤΥǥƥƥѸä Lowland ˰ܤäȤƤ롥
Scottisʤߤ Older Scots ȸƤФ뤳ѼϡινɸѼȤϤʤʤä1516ˤơOlder Scots ˤʸؤϡRobert Henryson, William Dunbar, Gavin Douglas, Sir David Lyndsay ʤɤˤ겫ޤɸϰ̤ϥȯ Chancery English ˴ŤѼ줿ͳȤƤϤĤ뤬(1) Henryson Dunbar ʤɤνɽѸ줬 Chaucer αѸǥȤƤꡤɤؤܶƤȡ(2) Older Scots ϶θȤʤۤɤޤǤˤϰҿʤäȡ(3) ܤʤɤˤꥤɤαѸ줬Ǥ˥åȥǽвäƤȡ(4) Older Scots ʤäȤʤɤͿƤ
ͳϡ1513ǯ˥åȥɤ Flodden 襤ǥɷ餱³ƽפȤ줿ȤԤϥɤαѸǿĹɤΤǤ롥ޤ1603ǯ James VI ɲ James I Ȥ¨̤the Union of Crowns ȡåȥɲȤˤ Scots λٱ䤨뤳ȤȤʤä1707ǯ the Union of Parliaments ⤽η֤18ϡScots λѤޤǤˤʤä
åȥɿͤδ֤ο̩ʲäˤƤϡScots ĤäθȤƤ̮̿ݤ³18Ⱦ Robert Fergusson (1750--74), Robert Burns (1759--96), Sir Walter Scott (1771--1832) ʤɤʸͤڽФScots ˤϤĤʤʤä
20ˤϡScottish National Dictionary A Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue Linguistic Atlas of Scotland ʤɡScots μ䤽¾λͽǤ褦ˤʤꡤScots λߤ˹Ƥ褦˸뤬ɤʤ뤫Ϥ狼ʤ1999ǯ˥åȥɤ3֤˵IJ褷ư衤Ụ̄礤դ Scots 䤬ǮŪȤʤäƤ롥
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
#1715. IrelandˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1]) ˰³Fennell (195--97) ꥦ륺ˤѸˤάҤ롥
Pembrokeshire ϡHenry I λ1108ǯˡѸäɡեɥ̱ͤξڵˡϰˤϱѸ -ton ̾¿The Gower Peninsula λ夫Ѹ첽Ƥϰ¾Υ륺ϰ褫ڤΥˤǤ褦
̥륺ǤϡåȥɤƱͤļԻԤߤ졤ԻԤ濴˱Ѹä̱פ侦ȤĤԻϱѸ졤¼ϥ륺ȤʬۤϡˤϢʤ³
16 Tudor īϥ륺ʻäƤꡤάΰĤȤơԻθǤѸθҤˡΧˤݤη̡Ѹ϶θȤƹԤϤ뤳ȤˤʤäǤ礭ʾϡ1536ǯ1542ǯ Acts of Union ΥɤȤϢˤꡤˡΧˤѸѤ륺ǵ̳Ť졤Elizabeth I ˤƤϱѸؤ֤ȤεˤĤʤäطǤϡ1563ǯҤ륺졤ϥ륺ݻ˹ȿ̥륺Ф뤳Ȥˤʤä
17--18̤ơ륺αѸ첽Ͻ˿ʹԤƤä®٤ääΤϡĿͤΥХ뤳ΤΡѸ춦ƱΤȥ륺춦ƱΤ礦ȤʤäǤ롥19ϻȳ̿ȶˡ (1881) θ̤ǡϫƯԳѸäѸΰҿޤǥ륺ϱ̾夻褦ˤʤäλ塤вԤϫƯԤ륺ؤäƤνпϤϥ륺äΤΡ˥ɤѤä1901ǯޤǤˤϡɽпȼԤϤ2/3ʾȤʤäƤȤˤꡤαѸοƩȥ륺οबʹԤ륺ˤƱѸΥΥ1921ǯ63%1981ǯ81%ȿܤߤǤϥΥΥ륺üԤϤʤ
ߡ륺αưʤƤꡤBBCʸؤΤȤƥ륺줬Ѥ뵡Ϥ뤬ɤʤΤ̤οǤ롥
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
2Ĥθ줬Ȥˤϡ¿Υԥ䥯쥪줬Ǥ褦ˡ줫θιΨ˹⤯ʤ롥ظ (superstrate) ö (lexifier) ȤѸ졤뤤ϱѸ١ΥԥȤɽ褦ˡ̾Ϥθ줬Ǥ뤫餫Ǥ롥ޤʥǤϡۤȾ˺äơɤ餬礿줬ȽȤʤ "dual-source" Ȥ٤줬롥#1683. Pitkern ([2013-12-05-1]) ϡˤޤ dual-source creole ȤƵۤˡdual-source pidgin dual-source creoloid ȤߤʤȤΤǤ줬¸ߤ (Trudgill, Sociolinguistics 182--83)
1917ǯޤǥΥ륦ǸפθȤäƤ Russenorsk ϡdual-source pidgin ȹͤ롥Russenorsk ϥȥΥ륦θǤۤȾ˺ǡñ㲽ηϤͭƤθϡ1917ǯ˥̿ˤäξθפǤѤƤäȥΥ륦üԤΤߤʤ餺߸졤եɸ졤졤ɥĸ졤ѸüԤˤѤ졤lingua franca ȤƵǽƤRussenorsk ϡdual-source pidgin Ǥ뤳Ȥ˲ä̱ϤȤǤϤʤפΤȯã衼åѸɤΥԥȤƤͭ¸ߤǤ롥Russenorsk ϡ㤨мΤ褦Ѥ줿 (Trudgill, Glossary 114)
Kak ju vil skaffom ja drikke te, davaj på sjib tvoja ligge ne jes på slipom.
'If you will eat and drink tea, please on ship your lie down and on sleep'
ʥ˵ߤǤϥꥫ North Dakota ΰϰäƤ Michif (or Metsif or Métis) ϡdual-source creoloid Ǥcreoloid ˤĤƤϡ#1681. Ѹ "creole" ǤϤʤ "creoloid" ([2013-12-03-1]) ȡˡȤȤʤä2Ĥθϡե轻̱ Algonquian ²θ Cree Ǥ롥ե "mixed" Michif ̾ϡ19˥ʥפ̤ƥեä Cree äȤ줷̱²̾ˤʤäƤꡤϢˮܤˤްˤФƤMichif ϸŪˤϤۤñ㲽Ƥ餺̾ϥեħǤΰפư Cree ʣʷħݻƤ (Trudgill, Sociolinguistics 183--84) üԿʤ¸³֤ޤƤ轻̱1ĤǤ롥
Michif Ʊͤ2줬ͻ礷Ƥ븽ݤ language intertwining ȸƤФ졤˵¾ˤ Copper Island Aleut ȸƤФ줬⤦1ĤȤ (Trudgill, Glossary 28) ϡEskimo-Aleut ² Aleut ȥκǡüԤ2,000ͤۤɤȤ롥ä̾η Aleut ͳ褹뤬ưηǤȤ intertwining ֤
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
#1415. shew show (1) ([2013-03-12-1]) ȡ#1416. shew show (2) ([2013-03-13-1]) ǰä#1637. CLMET3.0 between betwixt ʬۤĴ ([2013-10-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 The Corpus of Late Modern English Texts, version 3.0 (CLMET3.0) ˤˬŪˤϡƱդѥ "\bshow(s|n|ed|ing)?_VB" "\bshew(s|n|ed|ing)?_VB" Ǹơ3ʬȤٿ٤ʲη̤Ф
| shew | show | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1710--1780 | 335 | 1,545 | 10,480,431 |
| 1780--1850 | 159 | 3,100 | 11,285,587 |
| 1850--1920 | 92 | 5,118 | 12,620,207 |
Why, you have shewn your wit upon the subject, and I mean to show your courage;
Mr. Wright, as well as Nadin, professed they were perfectly satisfied of this, and appeared to shew to me all the polite attention that they were capable of showing.
Assuredly I did not show him the face which I shewed Folderico.
Fennell (198--200) ǡɤˤѸѤˤˤĤάҤ롥ɤˤѸαƶŪ˵Ҥǡפʻ3Ĥ롥1Ĥϡɤ˥Υޥ Henry II (1133--89) μ1171ǯǤ롥ΤȤˤϱѸϰҿ줺˥ɸüԤˤꥢɲƤޤä1366ǯ Statutes of Kilkenny ˤѸϰ̤䶯ܺʤ줿̤ϽФʤä1550ǯ˽פؤȿȯ顤ץƥȤħѸФƥȥåħ륢ɸȤޤФ졤16桤ɤˤѸΩä *
³17--18ϡѸαƶ˴ؤ2ȤƽפʻȤʤäλɿͤϥץơߤ뤳Ȥˤꥢɤ̱ϲ18ˤϥɤԻǤϱѸΰҿޤꡤɤλؤҿƱѸؤ֤褦ˤʤäΩưä1790ǯˤϡǤ¿ΥɿͤѸäޤǤˤʤäƤ
Ūʱƶڤܤ3ϡ1800ǯϢˡ (Act of Union) ˤꥢɤꥹʻ礵ưʹߤλǤ롥ѸϰҿξħȤʤꡤȿФ˥ɸȯŸ˸Ȱռ褦ˤʤä²λϻҶɤäƶ餹ޤǤˤʤä20ˤ J. P. Synge, Sean O'Casey, W. B. Yeats ʤɤɱѸˤʸسưᡤѸΰҿϤ˹ޤä1800ǯλǤϥɿβȾɸȤƤ1851ǯˤϤΨ23%ޤǸ1900ǯˤ5%ˤޤƤ1900ǯˤϡ¤85%ĶѸñüԤȤʤäƤΤǤ롥19˱ѸüΨäطʤȤơ4Ĥװͤ (Fennell 199)
(1) the expansion of the railways out from English-speaking Dublin and Belfast;
(2) the spread of education, first in unofficial 'hedge' schools and then in the national schools from 1831, where English was promoted and the use of Irish actively discouraged;
(3) dramatic demographic change caused by famine and the massive emigration to America and other countries from 1830 to 1850. The famine particularly decimated the Irish-speakers in the west of Ireland, possibly halving the number of speakers.
(4) the association of English with progress, modernization and an international voice. . . . [E]ven nationalist politicians in Ireland preached their message in English, in the knowledge that it would bring them a wider audience.
1916ǯΥ˪θˤʤäơɸ줬ɤΥǥƥƥȤƤߤʤ褦ˤʤäѸδפϤǤФȤʤäƤߤ⡤ɤEUˤΩϱѸȤƤΩäƤ뤷Dublin ιԻԤȤƤ̾ѸäƤȤ⤤ΤǤ롥
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
ε#1713. ƤαѸBay Islands ([2014-01-04-1]) ˰³ƤˤѸˤĤơϡBluefields (Nicaragua) Puerto Limón (Costa Rica) αѸܤ
Nicaragua Υֳ̤Į Bluefields ϡBritish West Indian, Nicaraguan ladino, Miskito (Afro-Indian) ο͡礵¿ʸϤǤ롥եꥫϥ衼åѿͤϱѸȤäʳ٤κϤ쥹ڥäNicaragua Υֳߤ19ȾФޤǥꥹλ۲ˤꡤƱμϰƱͤˡɽͳƤäƤեꥫͤ衼åѿͤߤĤȤ¿äߡλ¹ѸäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Bluefields αѸüԽĤϡ Bay Islands αѸüԽĤƱͤˡڥä¿ɽĤȤ⡤սαѸϰȤϢȤΤۤʰʾ塤Lipski, pp. 194--95 ˡ

ˡCosta Rica Υֳߤ̤ Puerto Limón äܤ#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1]) #1711. ֳϰαѸγȻ ([2014-01-02-1]) ǯɽǼPuerto Limón αѸѤˤϡBay Islands Bluefields ٤٤Ǥ롥ĮαѸüԤĤϡ1871ǯʹߤŴƻߤΤ Jamaica ʤɤϢƤ줿̤ιϫƯԤǤ롥ϫƯԤϡ̤ Costa Rica ̱ϳΥ졤θ⸽ߤ˻ޤͻ礷ȤϸPuerto Limón αѸüΨϡBay Islands Bluefiedls ٤㤤Ѹˤ붵εʤɤͿƤʰʾ塤Lipski, pp. 195--96 ˡ

Ⱥε Bay Islands, Bluefields, Puerto Limón ʤɰ̤ˤΤƤʤƤαѸˤΤϡȤƤαѸ줬ҲξɤˤääƤϰ褬¸ߤȤ¤դäǤ롥嵭ΤϤǤ⡤ѸμҲŪΩϡҿΤϤ¿ɸǤ륹ڥΰϤˤꡤŪ㤤ŪˤϱѸϸˤưҿΤǤȤȤϤǤ뤫⤷ʤ㳰ʤɤǤ⤽Ǥ櫓ǤϤʤȤǧƤɬפ롥
Lipski, John M. "English-Spanish Contact in the United States and Central America: Sociolinguistic Mirror Images?" Focus on the Caribbean. Ed. M. Görlach and J. A. Holm. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1986. 191--208.
ƤϿ̱ˤˤѸǤϤʤڥݥȥ줬ͥϰǤϤ뤬ֳפƽˤϱѸ줬ȤäƤϰ褬ߤƤ롥ϡ19ȾСѿ̱ϤˤѻߤȼäкѴơϰοưȤͳ褹롥ߡѸȤƱѸѤƤ Belize Τۤˤ⡤Bay Islands (Honduras), Bluefields Ȥ륫ֳϰ Corn Islands (Nicaragua), Puerto Limón (Costa Rica), Livingston Puerto Barrios (Guatemala)San Andrés Providencia (Columbia)Bocas del Toro Colón (Panama) ʤɤˤơѸ줬ȤäƤ롥ϡHonduras Ƥߤ褦

Honduras ߤ Costa de Mosquitos ȸƤФƤꡤ¿ʤѸ١Υ쥪äǥ̱²Ǥ롥̴ϰ La Costa Norte ȸƤФƤꡤ쥪ѸäͤޤतĤξ̱²Ǥ롥β⤫ Islas de la Bahía (Bay Islands) Ǥϡ1830ǯ˥ֳ Cayman Islands ̱Ƥ͡λ¹ǤꡤǯڤΥڥüԤܽƤƤΤΡѸ줬礿ȤäƤʡ#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1]) ڤӡ#1711. ֳϰαѸγȻ ([2014-01-02-1]) ΰ̱ǯɽȡˡꥫδѸҤˤ͵⤤
Ūˤ Bay Islands 17곤±βǤäͭԤ٤ѤƤ¼Ū˳ۤ뤳ȤϤʤäȤäƤ褤ߡ̱¿ͤͤѸȤäƤꡤڥμϤޤʤϡ糰˽ФȤˤϡڤˬȤ⥢ꥫɽαѸ (äĤνпϤǤ Jamaica Cayman Islandsˤˬ뤳ȤΤۤ¿ۥ饹ڤȤδطŪ嵭θ1986ǯ Lipski (193--94) ˰͵ΤʤΤǡǤ˸ŤˤʤäƤ뤫⤷ʤȤǤäƤ
Lipski, John M. "English-Spanish Contact in the United States and Central America: Sociolinguistic Mirror Images?" Focus on the Caribbean. Ed. M. Görlach and J. A. Holm. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1986. 191--208.
ɸνϸϡĥäʸΤǡ?˴ؤƤϡ?ˤĤơʤȡˡפΰ̣Ѥ롥ŵŪˤ "As regards the result, you need not worry so much." Τ褦˿ƳΤѤ롥ǽŪˤֻȤäƤ褤
ʣֻϡŪˤϡ#1201. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤֻȯ ([2012-08-10-1]) Ǽ褦ˡѸȯãƤ٤ as regards ϽѸǤϤʤѸǤȯãȹͤ롥OED regard, v. ˤȡ 8b ˤˡҤƤꡤȤƤ1797ǯ "A distinction is made, as regards moral rectitude, in the minds of many individuals." ȤʸƤ롥
b. as regards, as regarded (now rare), as regarding: with respect or reference to
Ʊưθʬ줫ȯŸ regarding, prep. ƱͤѤ뤬νȤƤ1779ǯ " The servant was called, and examined regarding the import of the answer he had brought from Madame la Comtesse." ʸƤ롥̾˸³ regarding ˤĤƤ17㤬ꡤ줬ʬʤΤֻʤΤꤹ뤳Ȥ
ǯκ٤Ϥˤ衤as regards regarding ѸˤʤäƺդưͳֻǤȲ᤹뤳Ȥ礭ʰϤʤOED ˵ܤΤ as regarding ޤơư regard ֻʣΰ۷18Ⱦդ˳ȹͤ롥
Τ٤#1637. CLMET3.0 between betwixt ʬۤĴ ([2013-10-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 The Corpus of Late Modern English Texts, version 3.0 (CLMET3.0) ˤꡤas regards Ƥߤas regarding 2ۤɥҥåȡˡ70ǯ֤Ȥ˶ڤä٤ޤȤȰʲΤ褦ˤʤä
| Decade | Frequency | Corpus size |
|---|---|---|
| 1710--1780 | 5 (5) | 10,480,431 words |
| 1780--1850 | 70 (18) | 11,285,587 |
| 1850--1920 | 347 (6) | 12,620,207 |
ֳαѸʬۤˤĤơ#1679. The West Indies αѸ ([2013-12-01-1])#1680. The West Indies θ ([2013-12-02-1])#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥϰθϼ¤ʣǤꡤȤƼҲŪʴؿ "Caribbean linguistics" Ȥ̾Ǹ椬ʤƤ롥
ѸȤäƤߤƤ⡤̱ˡѸ줬Ȼˡpidgin creole ɸѸμҲŪʴطڥʤ¾μȤζ¸ʤɡ䤦٤¿¿ͤʣطʤˤϡ˼Τ¿ͤʣΤHolm (1) 3ŦƤ롥μݤȡ(1) ϰαѸˤϡġڤȤʣαѸˤäƤꡤ1ĤˤˤޤȤ뤳Ȥ(2) ϰαѸγȻˤϡꥹŪϤγȻˤȤɬפƤʤ(3) ϰŪ˵ҤϡˤкѻˤǤꡤˤ pidgin creole դƤŪɾ椨˸ܤߤ뤳Ȥʤä(3) ˤĤƤϸߤǤϻѤäƤƤΤ(1) (2) ϤȤ⤷(2) ˤĤƤС㤨 St. Lucia Dominica ϵѹ̱Ϥ߱Ѹϳ2Ȥäˤʤѹ̱ϤǤϤʤꥫ Puerto Limón ɥߥ˥¹ the Samaná Peninsula Ǥϡ߱Ѹ줬ȤäƤ롤ʤɤλ𤬤롥
ϰΰ̱ˤȱѸȻˤΰü#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1]) εǤߤ硦ڤȤ˾ޤȤ Holm (18--19) ͿƤΤǡƤ30ǯθŤǤϤ뤬̱νпϡHolm ɮ줿ʤɤޤȤƤꡤϰαѸγѤΤ˻ͤˤϤʤɽοΡ---פϡ¾ιԤ˻Ƥ뤳Ȥˡ
| Date of Settlement | Territory | Settled from | Current Population |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1609 | Bermuda (Atlantic) | Britain, Africa | 55,000 |
| 1624 | St. Kitts (Leewards) | Britain, Africa, Ireland | 40,000 |
| 1627 | Barbados | Britain, Africa, Ireland | 280,000 |
| 1628 | Nevis (Leewards) | St. Kitts, Ireland | 15,000 |
| 1628 | Barbuda (Leewards) | St. Kitts, Ireland | 1,100 |
| 1631 | St. Martin (Dutch Ww.) | Leewards, Holland, France | 10,000 |
| 1631 | Providence (West Car.) | Britain, Bermuda, New England | 4,000 |
| 1631? | San Andrés (West Car.) | uncertain | 4,000 |
| 1632 | Antigua (Leewards) | St. Kitts | 74,000 |
| 1633 | Montserrat (Leewards) | St. Kitts, Ireland | 12,000 |
| 1636 | St. Eustatius (D. Ww.) | Leewards, Holland | 1,000 |
| 1640 | Saba (Dutch Windwards) | St. Eustatius, Leewards | 1,000 |
| 1648 | Bahamas (Eleuthera) | Bermuda | 240,000 |
| 1650 | Anguilla (Leewards) | Leewards | 6,500 |
| 1651 | Suriname (S. America) | Barbados (Sranan 1st lang.: 125,000) | 404,000 |
| 1655 | Jamaica | Barbados, Leewards, Suriname, Bermuda | 2,215,000 |
| 1666 | British Virgin Is. | Leewards | 12,000 |
| 1670 | Cayman Is. (West Car.) | Britain, Jamaica | 16,000 |
| 1670 | Carolina | Britain, Jamaica, Barbados, Bermuda, Bahamas | Gullah: 250,000 |
| 1672 | St. Thomas (Virgin Is.) | Leewards, Dutch Windwards, Denmark | --- |
| 1678 | Turks and Caicos | Bermuda | 7,000 |
| 1684 | St. John (Virgin Is.) | St. Thomas | --- |
| to 1715 | Saramaccan (Suriname) | Coastal plantations | (20,000) |
| from 1715 | Djuka (Suriname) | Coastal plantations | (16,000) |
| ca. 1730 | Miskito Coast (C.A.) | Belize, Jamaica | 40,000 |
| 1733 | St. Croix (Virgin Is.) | Leewards, St. Thomas | --- |
| 1740's | (British) Guyana | Barbados, Leewards | 832,000 |
| from 1760 | Aluku (Fr. Guiana) | Coastal plantations of Suriname | --- |
| 1763 | Dominica (Br. Windw.) | French Antilles (French Creole) | |
| 1763 | St. Vincent (Br. Ww.) | Leewards, Barbados | 112,000 |
| 1763 | Grenada (Br. Windw.) | Fr. Antilles, Leewards, Barbados | 108,000 |
| 1763 | Tobago | ? | --- |
| from 1780 | southern Bahamas | U.S. South | --- |
| 1786 | Belize | Miskito Coast | 150,000 |
| 1786 | Andros, Bahamas | Miskito Coast | --- |
| 1797 | Trinidad | Windwards, Barbados, Bahamas | 1,150,000 |
| 1815 | St. Lucia | French Antilles (French Creole) | |
| from 1824 | Samaná, Dominican Rep. | U.S. freedmen | 8,000 |
| 1827 | Bocas del Toro, Panama | San Andrés | --- |
| 1830's | Bay Islands, Honduras | Cayman Islands | 10,000 |
| 1849 | Nacimiento, Mexico | Afro-Seminoles | 300? |
| from 1850 | Rama, east Nicaragua | Miskito Coast | 300? |
| 1870 | Bracketville, Texas | Nacimiento Afro-Seminoles | 300? |
| 1871 | Puerto Limón, Costa Rica | Jamaica, Eastern Caribbean | 40,000 |
| 1898 | Puerto Rico | United States | 100,000? |
| 1904--14 | Panama | Jamaica, Eastern Caribbean | 100,000? |
| 1917 | Virgin Islands | United States | total: 100,000 |
| total: 6,398,500 | |||
쿷ǯǯܥ֥³Ƥޤꤤޤ
New Year ˤʤǡyear ȴϢʤ⤷ʤ˸θ츻ˤĤơɸ of yore ϡΤΡΤϡפ̣Ǥ롥Τ褦˷ƻŪ뤤ŪѤ롥
This was once a Roman road in days of yore.
The great composers of yore performed for kings and queens.
But Satan now is wiser than of yore.
yore ϡűѸ gēar (year) ʣ°ʷ gēara ͳ褹Ȥ롥°ʤŪǽ̤ΤǡֲǯΡפȤ̣ΤȲᤵƤ롥yore ñȤǤȤƤˡϸűѸ줫餢ꡤ1613ǯǸѤȤʤä̾ȤƤ ?c1350 ˽Ф餿°ʤˡȿǤΤ褦 of yore 礬ޤ졤ߤޤ³Ƥʸڤ a1375 ˡ
θ츻ϲŪˤ褦ˤߤ롥űѸʣ°ʷ *geāra ǤФθβѲˤĤʤ뤬ºݤˤ gēara ǤϤʤäSkeat (Principles 55fn) ϡ"The A.S. ge-, as occurring here before á, represents the sound of mod. E. y; at any rate, it did so in late A.S." ȲᤷƤꡤȤȤβ2첻 (falling diphthong) 徺2첻 (rising diphthong) ѲȤߤƤ롥ƱͤˡKlein gēara geāra µơξȤʸűѸǤȤߤʤƤ롥ˡBarnhart geāra "variant" ȤߤʤƤ롥Partridge ⤳θ츻äǧƤʤ
OED yore, adv. (and adj.) Ǥϡ츻ˤĤ "Old English geára, also geáre, geáro, adverbial formations of obscure origin." ȤƤꡤ"year" ȤδϢˤĤƤϸڤƤ롥Oxford Ϥθ츻ŵϡƱͤ "of obscure origin" źƤ롥OED ˵Ƥ̤θ츻ˤȡgefyrn (< ge- + fyrn (long ago)) ޤͤ ge- + ār (ere) Ȥ¤줵줿ΤǤϤʤȤ⤵롥
嵭λǡʣ°ϤޤʤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ¿θ츻ؼԤѤƤͭϤǤ뤳Ȥˤϰ㤤ʤ⤷θ츻⤬ȤС of yore ϡűѸ̾첽ʣ°ʤˡǽȷ֤ˤơ¤ʤŪʷǤϤ뤬ƸߤˤޤäͭȤȤˤʤ롥
Skeat, Walter W. Principles of English Etymology. 1st ser. 2nd Rev. ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1892.
Skeat, Walter William, ed. An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. 4th ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910. 1st ed. 1879--82. 2nd ed. 1883.
Skeat, Walter William, ed. A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. New ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910. 1st ed. 1882.
Klein, Ernest. A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language, Dealing with the Origin of Words and Their Sense Development, Thus Illustrating the History of Civilization and Culture. 2 vols. Amsterdam/London/New York: Elsevier, 1966--67. Unabridged, one-volume ed. 1971.
Barnhart, Robert K. and Sol Steimetz, eds. The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology. Bronxville, NY: The H. W. Wilson, 1988.
Partridge, Eric Honeywood. Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. 4th ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966. 1st ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; New York: Macmillan, 1958.
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