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ε#1920. singular they ޤ뵬ʸˡ (1) ([2014-07-30-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥsingular they ͡뤬ºݤˤϤʸˡŪǤʾ˴ؤҲŪǤȹͤͳ롥ΤȤ뤿ˤϡѸ̿;Τ¸ο;̾ɽ褦Ȥݤˡȿ˴ؤ꤬ʤȤλƤɬפ롥
#275. Ѹλ;ñ̾ ([2010-01-27-1]) #1054. singular they ([2012-03-16-1]) Ǥ⤤Ĥʸ"If anyone is interested in this blog, () can always contact me." Τ褦ʸˤơif μ anyone ȱ;̤̾βս䤪ȤȡѸǤϴ¸ο;̾Ȥ he, she, he or she, they Τ줫Ȥʤ롥뤤Ͽΰפ˴ؤ꤬ʲϤʤñ;̾ he 뤤 she ˤȡñ anyone ȤξȱˤϤդ路ǤϤˡ뤤ϽΤ줫ƤƤޤȤˤʤꡤ꤬Ĥ롥he or she ʤ뤤 s/he ʤɤɽˤȿξǤ뤬ԼǤʤɽȤʤ餶ʤthey ʤͭǿפȤ꤬Ĥ롥Ĥޤꡤhe she Ĥhe or she ɽȤƤΤʤĤthey ϿĤ
Τ줫ºŤ¾ˤʤ餶ʤǡɤѤ뤫Ȥ꤬롥ϤơɤβƱ٤ȹͤ츫ξμƱ褦˸뤬¤Ͻפʺۤ롥ϼҲӤӤƤʤϼҲӤӤƤȤȤ (cf. social gender) ñʣζ̤ϸ§ȤƻؼоݤΥδؤ°ǤꡤŪʶ̤Ǥ롥ñʣ֤褦ʣñ֤褦ä˼ҲŪʱƶϤʤʿεȤȤǤС thou ΰ ye/you Ƥ T/V distinction λ⻲Ȥ줿ˡȤϸ§ȤƻؼоݤΥҥȤ°Ǥꡤɽꡤɽꤹ뤳ȤˤϡҲŪԶѹդʿްդ롥Bodine (133) Τ褦ˡ"the two [number and sex] . . . are not socially analogous, since number lacks social significance" Ǥ롥
̿;Τ he ɽȤȤϡ(1) ҲްդʤҲްդɸ뤳Ȥӡ(2) κݤ˽Ǥʤ֡Ȥ2ĤΰտŪη̤ȤƤꤨʤ18εʸˡȤϡ2ĤΡ֤ơפhe λѤȿƤΤǤ롥դˡˤ˾̤˹ԤƤ̿;Τ they ɽϡ(1) Ҳްդʤθ̩ʶ̤ˤ(1) ҲްդɸʤȤ̤Ǥ롥ɤβˡҲŪˤ̵Ǥ뤫餫
he or she ʤȤˤĤƤϡΤˤʤ⤷ʤбƤˤĤƤƱ餤ʤɽȤ one or more person or persons ʤɤꡤ̤˻ѤƤ롥äơhe or she ꤢơ֤ʤפɾΤǤϤʤ
ѸüԤϡ̱ηäȤơ̵ʲˡ (= singular they) ƤʸˡȤϡޤ˿ŪտŪԼʤ (he) ʤƤΤǤ롥
Bodine, Ann. "Androcentrism in Prescriptive Grammar: Singular 'they', Sex-Indefinite 'he,' and 'he or she'." Language in Society 4 (1975): 129--46.
Ū˵ʸˡˤäƴƤ singular they ǯ̱ƤȤˤĤơ#275. Ѹλ;ñ̾ ([2010-01-27-1])#1054. singular they ([2012-03-16-1])ޤ¾ singular_they εǿƤѸŪˤϡsingular they λѤ϶ǧƤꡤ18εʸˡȤˤä줿ΤΡαƶεڤФʤɸŪѼˤƤϡߤ˻ޤϢʤȻѤ³ƤפˡŪѼ˴ؤ¤ꡤsingular they ϡ500ǯʾδ֡ѤäƤʤΤǤ롥ѲΤʤʿˤκǸ200ǯۤɤˡsingular they ޤ뵬ʸˡ줿ǯδ֤ˤβ褦䤯ޤäƤȤˤǤ롥Bodine (131) ۩
. . . despite almost two centuries of vigorous attempts to analyze and regulate it out of existence, singular 'they' is alive and well. Its survival is all the more remarkable considering that the weight of virtually the entire educational and publishing establishment has been behind the attempt to eradicate it.
18ʹߤäʤȡʤñΰ̿;Τ¸Τɤο;̾ɽ魯Ȥäơ(1) εʸˡѥ (Prescriptive Paradigm) ȡ(2) ʸˡѥ (Non-Prescriptive Paradigm) ȤΩƤBodine (132) 줾ο;̾ΥѥƤΤǡƸ褦

Non-Prescriptive Paradigm ˤ YOU WE γĥ̤ʤΤǤƤȤTHEY SHE, HE ΰ˿Ǥʬ singular they ˡ롥ӤȡPrescriptive Paradigm οŪ褯狼ԤΤˤĤơεˤ롥
Bodine, Ann. "Androcentrism in Prescriptive Grammar: Singular 'they', Sex-Indefinite 'he,' and 'he or she'." Language in Society 4 (1975): 129--46.
Mesthrie and Rakesh (12--17) ˡ"INTEGRATING NEW ENGLISHES INTO THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE COMPLEX" ꤹϤꡤWorld Englishes 뤤 New Englishes ȤŪʻαѸˤΤȤ館Ƥꡤ
ѸγȻϡͭ˰鸽ߤޤǡ4Ĥ crossings ˤʹԤƤȤ1 crossing ϡ5ȾФޥ̱²֥ƥϤäƤΰܽάؤʳ顤ݥȥ˥뤢뤤ϥݥȥ۵褦ʣαѸѼ¿֡ܿǤ¸ߤƤʣαѸѼȤƤϡ²²塼²ʤɤδ֤̱²Ѽζ̤ܽ餫餢äܽϰѼҲѼȯãߤ줿¿֤ӸܿȤƤϡظȤƤΥȸαƶظȤƤΥƥȤܿ˵ظȤƤθťΥɸȤκʤɤŦ롥ȥˤäƤϡ1000ǯ˱Ѹ˾ƽդɸबȯŸ³ΥޥˤषοϡѸɸѼ "the first decline" ȸƤ٤ (13)
2 crossing ϡѸ1164ǯ Henry II ɤݤΡѸγȻؤΤȤѸ줬ɤذܿ줫̤ȤƤ夹뤳ȤϤʤäषɤο̱ԤϥɤƱƤ椭Ѹ⼺줿ܤϡ#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1]) Ȥ줿
Ѹ줫ѸˤơѸ˾2ܤνդɸಽưɤˤȯɸѼϡʹߡߤ˻ޤǡѸˤøŪϰ̤Ƥ20äƤΥꥫѼȯŸˤꡤޤ20Ⱦߤ褦ˤʤäɸѼ狼æ뷹ѼĹˤꡤøŪϰ̤Ū˲äƤƤ롥ϰ̤㲼ϡɤδߤСѸɸѼ "a second decline" (16) ȸƤ٤"a second decline" ˤƤϡ"the first decline" ΤȤΤ褦ɸѼ綠ΤΤ䤨櫓ǤϤʤȤդϤޤ¸ߤ³ƤꡤꥫѼ䤽¾ѼȤδ֤Ūϰ̤㲼ƤȤˤʤ
ǡѸʹߤϡˤϤο̱ϻۤŸƤѸγȻˤĤƤϡ#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1]) ϤȤơܥ֥Ǥ¿夲ƤѸϤΥꥹʤȥꥫˤηǤ뿢̱ϼΤȤǡΥ뤳ȤˤʤäΥˤϡȤƤαѸѼ郎üԤȤȤ˰ܿ줿 ("colonies of settlement") ⤢СкŪŪȤ뿢̱ϻۤˤƱѸ줬2Ȥƽ줿 ("colonies of exploitation") ⤢äԤ the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, St. Helena, the Falklands ʤɤΤ ENL ϰ衤Ԥϥեꥫ䥢Τ ESL ϰбʡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1]) ӡ#409. ̱ϲͼǤߤ World Englishes ʬ ([2010-06-10-1]) ȡˡƤο̱ϻۤäƤʤݸΤȤƤϰ̤и Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iraq ʤɤǤϡESL EFL ŪʱѸѼ郎ߤ롥ޤ20ʹߤϱƤο̱ϻۤˤľŪˤϷиƤʤȤ⡤ܡϤϤǡEFL 뤤 ELF ȤƤαѸѼ郎ؤФƤ롥ǤϡѸüԤοưɬȼʤѸ4 crossing äƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ĤޤꡤѸ˾ơѸȤ줬üԤ̤ΰưȼ鷺˳ȻƤΤ
Ѹ˾4Ĥ crossings ˤϤ줾˰㤤ߤ뤬Ȥ櫓ݥȥ4 crossing ռǡ crossings ֤ȡѸ˵ҤΤοƶΤǤϤʤλ¤ϡꥹˤ˴ѤȤ̤Ȥ롥
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
sharp flat ʹСڤˤȾ⤤ŵʢˤȾ㤤ѵʢˤפ⤫֡ڤǤϸߤȿոȤ⤤ط⤷Ȥ˱ѸǤϡ֤äꡤΤˡפȤ̣ͭƤ롥ܸǤ flat ϡ10åեåȤפʤɤȤ뤬ѸǤ sharp ֤äꡤΤˡפ̣ȤѤ롥ʲˡξΰ̣ǤȤѤʸ褦
We're meeting at one thirty sharp.
Please be here at seven o'clock sharp.
She planned to unlock the store at 8.00 sharp this morning.
He ran 100 yards in 10 seconds flat!
You're sitting behind an engine that'll move you from 0 to 60mph in six seconds flat.
I fell asleep in five seconds flat!
sharp ϻɽ魯Τˡflat ϻַ¬ѤȤ㤤Ϥ뤬֤äꡤΤˡפȤ̣ΰפ϶̣ϤɤΤ褦ͳˤΤ
sharp ϡֱԤפθ顤֡ʻ֤ˡ˸ʤʡפͳơ֤äꡤΤˡפؤỌ̇̄Ѳpunctual ʻָΡˤθ촴ƥ punctumʤԤڤ point Ǥ뤳ȤӤ줿
flat ϸʿפ餯̤ˤ֤꤭פͳơ֤äꡤΤˡפؤỌ̇̄ѲΤǤϤʤȹͤ롤顤äѤ¬Ѥͳ狼롥
Ĥޤꡤ֤äꡤΤˡפθγ˴ؤƤϡsharp flat δ֤ˤľܤˤܤˤطʤȹͤƤ褤줾ȼΥ롼ȤФơޤ褦ʸȯãȹͤ롥
ѸȤƤξΩϡޤ̤äǤ롥sharp ϡιù⤵αԤȤƤȤ館 (synaesthesia) λʪǤꡤ֡ʥˤĤơȾ⤤פθޤ줿Ф flat ϡShakespeare The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1. 2. 90) ˤƽФ֤ĤפθѤ줿 sharp ("No, madam, 'tis too sharp.") ؤŪȤơʿޤʡĤޤʤפ̣ȿոȤ flat ("Nay, you are too flat.") Ѥ줿Ȥͳ褹롥γݤ礤ȿմطεҤȤƤѤ졤Ⱦ⤤פsharp ȤǡȾ㤤פ flat ޤ줿Τ褦˴ŪǤϤ뤬flat ΤۤⶦФʤ̤ȤƤοȤȤˤʤ̤θС"correlative analogy" (Stern 218--20) ˤȿոηȤ롥
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
ťΥɸˤä֤줿¿θűѸñΤȤ櫓פʤΤ1Ĥư niman (to take) 롥űѸ줫ѸˤƺǤܶư1ĤäűѸ˸ťΥɸ줫äƱ taka ʸ takeˤ֤뤳ȤˤʤäѸǤϡ#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ ([2010-03-01-1]) γƼθɽǸ¤ꡤtake Ͼ60̰ĶٸǤ롥Τ褦Ūʰ̣ôˤ줫ѸؤΰܹԤۤɤθܿȤϤʤäˤĤƤ͡ʹͻʤƤͭϤʸˤСűѸȸťΥɸ줬ҲŪʾ岼طˤϤʤ¤Ӥ adstrata ˵ءˤʤƤȤƤ롥ºݡѸǤ nimen tāken ϸߤĹ硦ʻ¸طиƤꡤ褷û֤ԤԤִ줿櫓ǤϤʤniman 16˰ष1600ǯʹߺƤ褹ʤɤο17̤ưŪѤ줿̤ȤƤ niman ϸߤޤǤˡƻ¾ѤȤʤꡤtake niman Τۤܤ٤Ƥˡִơߤ˻äƤ롥ξζطˤĤƤϡRynell ˾ܤҤƤ롥
űѸ niman ϡޥĸ *neman ̤ꡤƱȤƤϥ nemen, ɥĸ nehmen, ȸ niman ΤۤťΥɸ줽ΤΤˤ nema 롥̤Сĸ *nem- (to distribute) ˤɤĤ饮ꥷ némein (to distribute) Ф nemesis ʥͥꥷäαŷȳνˤѸäƤ롥
űѸ niman ϶Ѳ4ưǡniman -- nam -- nōmon -- numen Τ褦˳ѤˤäơޤѥˤꡤƥåȤ˰ۤʤ첻줿ѸޤǤˤϼѲ
Τ褦ˡniman ϸɸѸǤϺפܻۤĤƤʤȤäƤ褤1ĤפФ롥ʬ numen ͳ褹ƻ numb ʤ̵ФˤʤäӤ줿 /nʌm/ Ǥ롥"taken, seized, overcome" ۤɤΰִ̣ФäפθΤȹͤ롥Фϡa1400 Cursor Mundi (Frf 14) 13821Ԥ nomin ΰ۷ȤƸ ("xxviij 3ere in bande I lay nomme baþ fote & hande.") 츻Ūʸ <b> 16ǡcrumb, limb, thumb ʤɤӤ롥̵ <b> ˤĤƤϡ#34. thumb ֤ȯ ([2009-06-01-1]), #724. thumb ֤ȯ (2) ([2011-04-21-1]), #1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1]) Ȥ줿
Rynell, Alarik. The Rivalry of Scandinavian and Native Synonyms in Middle English Especially taken and nimen. Lund: Håkan Ohlssons, 1948.
#643. ΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻ ([2011-01-30-1]), #712. ΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻ (2) ([2011-04-09-1]), #752. ¾ưȼưüʲʬƻ ([2011-05-19-1]) ǴϢ˿줿Ѹˤϲʬˡ˱2Ĥΰۤʤ֤ drunk / drunken, bent / bended, proved / proven, beloved / belovèd Τ褦ʥڥ롥ûԤϽŪˡ1ʬĹԤϸŪѤ뷹롥εǤϡꥺȴϢŤơλȤʬˤĤ
嵭ΥڥϤưβʬƻưͳǤϤʤƻˤ⡤2Ĥΰ۷֤㤬Ѹ˸줿ξԤɤٴϢ뤫Ϥ狼ʤȤʬȤƤΤǾҲ𤷤two / twain, my / mine, thy / thine, old / olden γƥڥˤơԤη֤ϸ /n/ ޤʬĹȤ־ħ뤬ˡȤƤԤԤ٤Ƥ֤ʤ롥ڡ켣 (462) Ȥơ줾ħޤȤ褦
(1) two / twain
twain ϸűѸ tweġen ʡгʤη֤ͳ褷two бη֤ͳ褹롥twain two ȤȤѸ̤ƹѤ졤ѸäƤ⡤(i) ̾θֽȤơ(ii) ̾θƱʸȤơ(iii) ˡȤơѤƤtwain two ˲³ƤϤˡʤѸޤӤȤˤʤ롥
I have receivyd twaine your lettres. (1554 Cdl. Pole in Eng. Hist. Rev.)
lovers twain (MND. V. i. 151)
O Perdita, what have we twain forgot! (Wint. IV. iv. 673)
I must become a borrower of the night For a dark hour or twain. (Mac. III. i. 26--27)
Thou and my bosom henceforth shall be twain. (Rom. III. v. 240)
twain ӱΤѤ䤹äȤϸޤǤʤ
(2) my / mine, thy / thine
줾űѸο;̾°ʷ mīn, þīn ̤롥ͭɽ魯ˡˤơƥڥԤη my, thy ǤϻҲ֤ /n/ æΤǡԤη mine, thine Ǥ첻 /n/ ݻ줿ΤǤ롥λȤʬϡ1318ޤ³ñȤѤˡǤϡmine, thine /n/ ֤ͭФ졤ߤ˻롥
(3) old / olden
olden 15Ⱦ˽Ф٤㤤۷֤äShakespeare Ǥ1٤Τ "Blood hath been shed ere now, i' the olden time," (Mac. III. iv. 75) ȤƸ졤餯 the olden time ȤɽޤäΤȻפ롥Scott ˤ olden times Ȥ㤬롥19㳰Ū˽ˡѸǤϸ§ȤƤäѤ嵭θѤ롥
ΥڥǤĹ֤ˤ /n/ ˲äƤ뤬ºݤ˲䤹ʤäƥꥺ˴ͿȹͤˤΤ (3) ΤߤǤ롥(3) Ǥ2 olden ˡȤƤλѤ˸¤Ƥꡤ ##643,712 Ǽꥺˤ˹פ롥(1), (2) ǤϡɲäʤΤ /n/ դĹ֤ΤۤषˡäƤΤ(3) 椷оŪǤ롥
ͺ켣 رѸIIIA١Ѹ10罤۽Ź1984ǯ
#1905. ܸˤֽס ([2014-07-15-1]) ˤĤ롥
ܸŪ˹ͤȤޤפ⤫֤Τϡ˼ʴʸˤʲ̾ʸءˤʸǤ롥դȤǥˤΩȤƸƤΤ϶̣ΰ㤤ϸäˤȿǤ졤θܸˤˤơѤȡ¸ѤȷӤĤ뷹߽Ф
ä˴ؤƸʷϡεǤ줿褦ˡ˼ȯãǤ롥νΤˡʪݤʤɤФնʸˡȤơ֤⤸פźʸ䡤Ƭ֤פդȯãԤϡȱ֤⤸ס֤⤸סʤ֤⤸סʫ֤դ⤸סݻҤ֤⤸סϤ֤Ϥ⤸סҤ뤤ʶʢΡˤ֤Ҥ⤸סܤˤ֤ʸס֤⤸פȤतǤ롥Ԥϡ֤ס֤ס֤ɡס֤ס֤ס֤ס֤ס֤ס֤ס֤ס֤ס֤Ĥס֤Ĥס֤Ǥס֤ʤס֤̤ס֤Ϥס֤ס֤ȭס֤ס֤Ҥס֤ߤĤפतǤ롥餬ˤϸȤνءȤĮͤνؤȳγʤƤ椭νȤưѤƤʲƣۤ, p. 207ˡ¼줬Ͻ5ǯ (1692)Τκˡ ؽ٤ˤСֽΤȤФϡޤˤϤ餫ʤ뤳褱졤άͤŤλˤȤ⤸ȤĤƤϤ餫ʤ٤סʺƣp. 181ˤȤꡤκ줬ռƤȤ狼롥
ϡ̤ηνȤͷΤȯãϤԤ縶忷ĮФƹ͵ȸǤѤ졤ȸΤΤϹ¤˳ΩȤ⤤롥ֳǻסΤʤޤס֤աפʤɤȤƤФ롥о̾Ρ֤̤ס֤ޤϤס̾Ρ֤ס֤äסưΡ֤ס֤ס֤סưΡ֤ʤޤפʤɡħŪɽѤ줿ʺƣp. 182) ¿ΤǡַϡϤͤϤͤʤפȤĤäƤ롥ߤΡ֤ס֤ޤס֤ס֤ޤפ˺פĤƤ롥
ܸΤȽζ̤ݤäƤϡۤ¿ʤ#1905. ܸˤֽס ([2014-07-15-1]) Ǥ⤤Ĥ줿ʤ顤ΩĻ褦ʲƣۤpp. 208--09ˡ
(1) ˤ֤뤾פΡ֤פֽФ뤼פΡ֤פѡ֤ƤפΡ֤פ֤ΤפΡ֤Τפ
(2) äǤΡ֤ס֤ܤס֤ޤפѡ֤פ
(3) ϡưλ٤⤯¿
(4) ϡ餿ޤä̤Ǥδλ٤⤯̤Ǥ¯λ٤⤤
(5) ϡȯֹʸ¿
(6) ϡ䤤Ǿ徺ĴѤ뤳Ȥ¿
(7) ϡ֤ס֤ФפȤä졤֤ƤפʤɤμŪɾηƻλѤ¿
(8) ϡڤ귿ΰŤ¿
(9) ϡʸڤʤǽ㤬¿
(10) ϡ֤錄䤷Ƥ䤷ơפȤäȿ¿
(11) ϡɽǤܤ櫓ޤʤ餫Ǥ
(12) ϡդˤơƻ졤֤ȤƤפΤ褦ʶ졤ɽ;⤿ɽ¿Ѥ
(13) ϡֹԤޤסޤסֵޤפʤɤмԷɸѤ̤ǡϡ֤ä롩פǺɸѤ뤳Ȥ¿
оȤΤˡѸˤĤơ#476. That's gorgeous! ([2010-08-16-1]) #913. BNC ˤä˽Ĵ ([2011-10-27-1]) #915. äˤѤ˽ ([2011-10-29-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ƣ ɧ ɹ ԡܸ쳵١դ1989ǯ
ƣ س⡡ܸˡ١īҽŹ1995ǯ
Ѹˤˤ <g> Ȥ֤ʸδطϡȤ櫓ѸˤơʣǤ롥űѸꡤ<g> Ȥʸ (grapheme) ˤϡʸ (allograph) ȤơʿƬ <<Ӡ>> Ȥ (insular <g>) ȴݤĤƬ <<g>> Ȥ (Carolingian <g>) äűѸǤϡԤ̤ǤꡤԤϼȤƥƥ̤Τ˻Ȥ줿ˤʤ <g> ϡ첻ʻˤǤĺ /g/첻ʻˤǤϹŸ /j/ б<god> (God), <gear> (year) ǡǤ롥̻ˤ2ĤβκѤ/j/ <i> ƤꡤŻ <ge> ѤԤ⤤yoke <ioc>, <geoc> ʤɤ֤ä㤬롥
ΥޥȤѸȡ<<g>> (Carolingian <g>) ̲§ȤƤβ /g/ ä#1651. j g ([2013-11-03-1]) Ǹ褦 /ʤ/ ˤб뤳Ȥä<<Ӡ>> (insular <g>) ϡ̤Ÿ /j/ ɽ路³ƻĤä /x/ ɽ魯褦ˤʤä顤ξ˴ޤ yogh θƤ̾Ȥʤäyogh λ <<Ӡ>> (insular <g>) 顤 <3> ե켰 <z> ˶ᤤǤ <<ȝ>> ؤȯŸѸ̤ƹԤ줿15˳ơβ <y> <gh> ʸˤ֤줿<ȝet> (yet), <ȝou> (you), <niȝt> (night), <liȝt> (light) ȡ
<<ȝ>> ϡ15Ⱦ˰ѤƳ줿ȤˡScotland ǤäȤҤͤä줿˽Ҥ٤褦ˡλϥե켰 <z> λƤᡤåȥɤΰȤϸʤ <<ȝ>> <<z>> ȺƱƤޤäǡ<<ȝ>> ֤٤Ȥ˸ä <<z>> ֤㤬褦ˤʤ롥<zeir> (year), <ze> (ye), <capercailzie> (capercailye) ǡǤ롥ͭ̾ˤ⤽κƱκפĤƤꡤ#447. Dalziel, MacKenzie, Menzies <z> ([2010-07-18-1]) ǸȤǤ롥
Τ褦ˡinsular <g> yogh ϡűѸ衤˻ޤǡ¾ʣʸʣ˴ؤ礤˺ʤʸȤơѸʸˤΰäΤǤ롥ʾ塤Horobin (86, 91) ͤˤƼɮ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
#1895. űѸΥƥѸֻȼѤ ([2014-07-05-1]) εǡűѸΥƥѸϡѸ첽ֻǤϤʤƥΤޤޤֻǼ뤳ȤŦΥƥѸϱѸ첽ֻǼ뷹äȤͤȡѤδ餤СűѸ˸ä substitution ٹ礤礭ʤäɽǤΤǤϤʤȡ
ơѸȡѸֻηϤ̤Ÿ̤ΥեѸ줬ήˤĤ졤ȤȤ˥ե켰ֻƶϤαѸ˾νǶ̣Τϡե켰ֻ˽äΤϥեѸΤߤǤϤʤäȤ;äˤޤDZƶڤܤűѸ켰ֻ֤ƤäפʤΤƤ⡤űѸ <c> (= /ʧ/) ϥե켰 <ch> ִ줿<cw> <qw> , <s> ΰ <ce> ء<u> <ou> ؤִ줿椨ˡǤ⸽Ѹˤ <chin>, <choose>, <queen>, <quick>, <ice>, <mice>, <about>, <house> ʤɤ֤褦ˤʤäƤ롥ֻηϾΥΥޥȤȤǤ⤤٤ΤǤꡤξܤˤСűѸΥƥ켰ֻˤ٤ substitution ʤɡ襤Ƥۤɤϡե켰ֻѸ˵ڤȤǡ#1793. -<ce> 꽤 ([2014-03-25-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡβ꽤 (hypercorrection) ȸƤǤ褤⤷ʤʤۤˡ#81. once twice -ce Ȥϲ ([2009-07-18-1]) ӡ#1153. ̾ adviceư advise ([2012-06-23-1]) ⻲ȡˡ̾ hypercorrection ññ̤ñȯ˺ѤؤȤ¿嵭ξˤϹϤ˱ƶεڤǤΤħŪǤ롥ե켰ֻηŪ substitution Ȥ
Horobin (89) "rather than adjust the spelling of the French loans to fit the native pattern, existing English words were respelled according to the French practices" ȽҤ٤ȤϡѸ줬եѸ첽褦ȤΤǤϤʤѸ켫餬ե첽褦ȤƤħؤƤΤǤ롥
#1208. եαʸˡؤαƶɾ ([2012-08-17-1]) #1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1]) ˤ褦ˡեαѸؤαƶϡäСֻˤǤ⸲ˡηŪ˸Ƥ롥̾ñȯλѤ substitution hypercorrection ȤѸΤ褦ηŪʸѲŬѤȿƶΤǤϤʤȤ뤬
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ɸˤĤơ#852. ̾̾ she (1) ([2011-08-27-1])#853. ̾̾ she (2) ([2011-08-28-1])#854. ̾̾ she (3) ([2011-08-29-1])#1028. ʤ̾ȤߤʤƤΤ ([2012-02-19-1])#1517. ([2013-06-22-1]) ʤɤˤƤä[2011-08-29-1]εǤϡ100ǯۤɤι̾ she ˡοߤϢơѤ㸺Ƥ20Ⱦΰ̤ŪĴʸɤǤߤ
Marcoux ϡ1970ǯȾˤʤ줿Ȼפ Texas ʱѸüԡˤ︳ԤȤ¸ǡ̾ưʪʹ֤ؼȤƴޤʸФղõ¨Ū˲äȤꤷղõˤ̾줬ϤʤΤǡ̾줬 he she ˤꡤ︳ԤŪˤ̾ͿƤ뤫Ƚ롤Ȥ櫓㤨СΤ褦ʸͿ
(1a) America will always defend her overseas interests, () () ?
(1b) America supports the United Nations, () () ?
(2a) The Queen Mary has made her last voyage, () () ?
(2b) The Queen Mary has been scrapped, () () ?
(1a), (1b) Ϲ̾(2a), (2b) ФŪ she ǤξȱɤΤ餤ΤĴŪꤵƤꡤ(1a), (2a) ʸνͭ her ¸ߤ she ˤɤ٤αƶڤܤƤ뤫ĴŪꤵƤ롥
ǤϡĴ̤ޤ̾ˤĤơ(1a) ΥפβǤ2/3︳Ԥղõ she Ѥ(1b) Υפ she ѤΤȾʬʲäshe Ǥʤˤϡit Ǥ¿they, we ʤɤ³
ˡˤĤơ(2a) ΥפβǤ3/4︳Ԥղõ she Ѥ(2b) Υפ she ѤΤϡ︳Ԥ1/3--1/2ۤɤˤʤäshe ʳˤϡ§Ȥ it Ѥ줿
Ĵ̤ʬ뤳Ȥϡμ¸︳ԤˤȤäơ̾̾ϡŪŪ she ȳŪŪ it Ȥδ֤ɤƤȤȤȤ櫓̾Ф it ˡͥȤʤäƤƤ褦̾ǤǤ⡤ʸ˽ͭ̾ her ʤɤƤղõǤ she Ψ⤯ʤ뤳Ȥ顤ŪΰפŪŪʡֽפݻΤ˰äƤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤʤä
Marcoux ʸ40ǯФäߤǤϡˤ it ξȱä礷Ƥ뤬she ˲ΤΤȤʤäȤϸڤʤޤɤ줬ȤСطʤˤϤɤΤ褦װΤ40ǯȸߤȤǤϡװμȤ줾θܤѤäƤƤΤˡ she Ф⤷ʤäƤ椯ˤƤɤΤ褦˾äƹԤΤȤˤϡؿƤ롥
Marcoux, Dell. "Deviation in English Gender." American Speech 48 (1973): 98--107.
ε#1910. ٻߡ ([2014-07-20-1]) ǿ줿ΤǡؤΥȥݥ1ĤȤƤˡˡ䡤۲ᡨreticence, aposiopesis, silenceˤˤĤ쿨Ƥϡȯäˤ̵֤ŪǽȤ夲ϤŪˡȤį
Ȥϡ̤ȤˤäƸդΤǽ餫ʤΤǤäˤʤʤäƤۤ뤳Ȥ˰̣롥³ԤȤǼºݤˤ³ʤȤˤꡤʹϥڥ֤ˤ롥ʹϡ³Ϥ䤦ΩΩ롥СޤޤäĴҤ˹碌Ƶ褯Ȥ˾äƤΤˡͽ̥ߥǥХȥϤ줿ȤǤ롥;;٤ǺѤʤФ褤ʤФʤʤǤۤɤ˥ڥ֤ɤޤ줿ȤСʹϤθǼŪʥåɺȤ˻ͿƤʤʤäˤȤäƤϡƤäǡ̤Ȥˤºݤ˸ʾθ̤ȤǤȤΤǤ롥
ʾβϡƣ (41) νͤҼڤΤˤʤ
줿ɽϡɽ̤뤳ȤˤäợλФȤŻȾʬɼԤʬô롥ưŪǤäϤǽưŪʳưȤ롥ʹ꤬˻ä뤳ȤˤäƤϤƤȤФΰ̣ϳġĤȤϡʤˤΤФΤȤǤϤʤ⤽ˤɽΩ뤿κŪʾǤ뤬ȥåΡդϤθüʤɽ褦Ȥˤۤʤʤ
䤿ϤȤåȤ꤫ȤΤȹͤǤ롥դϡ줿ϡåοΤǤ䤤פѤΤʸФ꤬䤤ʤΤǤϤʤ٤ƤΥå䤤ʤΤǤ롥
ޤȥåˡΤϡGrice Ρ#1122. Ĵθ ([2012-05-23-1]) (cooperative principle) ˰տŪȿ뤳ȤˤꡤäλͿԤ˥åͿ뤳ȤǤ롥äϡʹδԤڤ뤳ȤˤäơʹޤǾQȤƵȤΤʤääθ§ˤޤΩ֤餻Τƣ֤٤ƤΥå䤤ʤΤǤפȽҤ٤ƤȤꡤȯ뤹٤ƤʸƬˤϡ "I ask you to understand what I am going to say: " "Tell me what you have to say to what I am going to say: " άƤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ǤϡΤ褦֤ɽ IFID (Illocutionary Force Indicating Device) ȸƤǤ뤬ŪѤ줿ϡǶϤ IFID εǽ̤ƤȤȤˤʤ롥
ٻߤϡäŪʸݤȻפ뤫⤷ʤषդˤߤ˱ѤƤ롥ϥˤ⤫餺ȿǤ뤳ȤΤܸΡ֡ġġפꡤѸ ". . . ." ꡥٻߤôߥ˥β̵ͤǤȤСɽɬפʤϤǤ롥Ƥ줬ɽȤΤϡþΰ̣ڵ
ƣ סإȥåǧ١̼ҡ1992ǯ
ءΧˤٻ (pause) 뤤ϵٻ߸ (pausal phenomena) ȤϡüԤȯäˤ̵֤Ǥ롥ŪʴߤСٻߤȯ©ѤΤɬפʻ֤Ȥ뤷ȯäΤνλ֤ȤŪʴߤȡ첻ȯʤΤ鲿ⵡǽ̤ʤΤ褦˹ͤ줽ϸǤ롥̵Ūʸ̤褦ˡٻߤޤŪʵǽ̤
ƣ (57) ˤСٻߤȤϡäˤȤäơץߥͥϢưƸ̤뤿̵֤ǤꡤʹˤȤäơİ褷Ƥ뤿ɬפʻ֡פ롥ǤϡٻߤäλСʹ˽פ̤Ƥ뤳ȤƤ롥塤̣塤þΥץߥͥΩˤɸΤ夫饵ݡȤ뵡ǽȤ
ٻߤΤĤ⤦1ĤθŪǽϡʸˡŪʶɸ뤳ȤǤ (Crystal 355) üԤϡʸι¤ڤܤǵٻߤ뤳ȤˤꡤʹʬϤˤô餷Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥Crystal Ϥεǽ juncture pause ȸƤǤ뤬ϺѸǤС#976. syntagma marking ([2011-12-29-1]) εǽ϶Ȥʤ¾αΧŪʼʤˤäƤ¸줦Τ顤ٻߤ⡤ϥǤȤϤμʤƱ˰֤ŤΤ
ޤ̾ȯäǤϰδ֤˵ٻߤƤ櫓ǤϤʤŪˤϤɤθ춭ʾˤäƤϷǶˤˤٻߤ֤ȤǤΤǡ (word) ƱꤹŪǽäƤȤ⤤롥 potential pause ȸƤФ롥γǰϡǵٻߤ֤ȤФˤǤʤȤȤްդΤǤϤʤϸζǵٻߤۤä̤Ǥ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤʤζˤȤȤϸؾκ1ĤȤȤ#910. ʤ (1) ([2011-10-24-1])#911. ʤ (2) ([2011-10-25-1])#912. ʤ (3) ([2011-10-26-1])#921. ʤ (4) ([2011-11-04-1])#922. ʤ (5) ([2011-11-05-1]) εǰäƤٻߤȤָ餷ʤݤ˸ͿƤȤΤ̣
ٻߤĹտŪ֤ȡŪŪʰ̣ӤӻϤᡤ̵ȤƥذܹԤǤϹͻ䰦뤬٤ٻߤΤ⤦1ĤθŪʵǽǤ롥
ʤ̣Ǥεٻߤϡʸ̵̤Τ (silent pause) Ǥʤah er ʤɤΤĤʤ (filler) ȤƼ¸ͭεٻ (filled pause) ޤߤ롥filled pause ϡҤι¤Ūʵǽ (juncture pause) ϾʤȤʬŪΩƤꡤäѤΤǡ̤ hesitation pause ȸƤ֤Ȥ⤢롥
ƣ ˡŸ˾ܸ١ҡ1996ǯ
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
ε#1908. ɽ魯ΰ̣ΰ (1) ([2014-07-18-1]) ǡѸˤ̤Ƹ semantic pejoration ΰ췲ѸŪˤϡɽ魯ΰ̣ΰ餫ʷǤꡤظˤϲ餫ưŤȹͤ롥ǤϡɤΤ褦ưŤΤ
1ĤϡȤ櫓ءפؼնŪʸ (euphemism) μפ¸ߤȤ𤬤롥ؤ̣ϰ taboo ǤꡤŪˤȤλؼоݤؼ뤳ȤΤǤ̤θ᤹롥˰٥ͥƥʴްդޤȤĤƤޤȡʧΤᡤüԤϼ깤ΤĤƤʤ̤θѤƻؼ뤳Ȥ֤ΤǤ롥ˡϡ#469. euphemism κ ([2010-08-09-1]) Ǥߤ褦͡뤬¸θ夲ơΰ̣žʲˤƤޤȤΤؤʤ1ĤǤ롥ܸΡ¯ספ⤳तǤ롥Ϣơβɽ魯 euphemism ˤĤơ#908. bra, panties, nightie ([2011-10-22-1]) Ȥ줿
Schulz μĥˤСưŤϡˤؤиפ˽λδǰǤȤǤϡʤλ뤹뤫ȤȡƤ뤫ȤݤоݤǤβͤҲŪˡʤƸŪˤ˲뤳Ȥˤäơ϶ݤƨ褦ȤƤΤȡˡʤϽƤΤȤС "fear of sexual inadequacy" ˤ롤³Schulz (89) ʣԤ˰͵ʤ顤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤롥
A woman knows the truth about his potency; he cannot lie to her. Yet her own performance remains a secret, a mystery to him. Thus, man's fear of woman is basically sexual, which is perhaps the reason why so many of the derogatory terms for women take on sexual connotations.
ࡤ϶˸Ūʴؿ餳ΰ̣Ѳ夲ΤʵˤʤäƤȤϡǽͽۤƤ⤺äȳغŪʥȥԥåˤʤ餷ǧθؤȿǤȤϡԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ˤؤäƤ
Schulz, Muriel. "The Semantic Derogation of Woman." Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Ed. Barrie Thorne and Nancy Henley. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1975. 64--75.
#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1]) (3) Ǽ̣ΰ (pejoration) ϡѸˤˤ㤬¿ɤ̣뤤ϾʤȤΩŪʰ̣ä˥ͥƥʲͤդ븽ݤǤ롥ޤǤεȤƤϡ#505. silly ΰ̣Ѳ ([2010-09-14-1])#683. semantic prosody ([2011-03-11-1] )#742. amusing, awful, and artificial ([2011-05-09-1]) ʤɤǶƤ
Ѹˤˤ̣ΰȤƤȤ櫓褯ΤƤΤϡɽ魯äѸˤ̤ơֽפ̣췲ϡ¤ŪʴỤ̄ (connotation) ƤֽעŪˤ餷ʤע־ءפȤΤŵŪʥѥǤ롥̤鰷ä Schulz ʸ "The Semantic Derogation of Woman" ˤȡֽɽ魯פ˰ŪʸݤǤ뤫Ǥ⤫ȸФ˼롥3ս꤫Ѥ褦
Again and again in the history of the language, one finds that a perfectly innocent term designating a girl or woman may begin with totally neutral or even positive connotations, but that gradually it acquires negative implications, at first perhaps only slightly disparaging, but after a period of time becoming abusive and ending as a sexual slur. (82--83)
. . . virtually every originally neutral word for women has at some point in its existence acquired debased connotations or obscene reference, or both. (83)
I have located roughly a thousand words and phrases describing women in sexually derogatory ways. There is nothing approaching this multitude for describing men. Farmer and Henley (1965), for example, have over five hundred terms (in English alone) which are synonyms for prostitute. They have only sixty-five synonyms for whoremonger. (89)
Schulz ʸˤϡ¿㤬Ƥ롥ʸ˸99ե٥åȽ¤٤Ƥߤ٤ƤŪס־ءפˤޤǰ̣櫓ǤϤʤѸˤΤʤǾʤȤ⤢Ūʴްդäƽؼñ췲Ǥ롥
abbess, academician, aunt, bag, bat, bawd, beldam, biddy, Biddy, bitch, broad, broadtail, carrion, cat, cleaver, cocktail, courtesan, cousin, cow, crone, dame, daughter, doll, Dolly, dolly, dowager, drab, drap, female, flagger, floozie, frump, game, Gill, girl, governess, guttersnipe, hack, hackney, hag, harlot, harridan, heifer, hussy, jade, jay, Jill, Jude, Jug, Kitty, kitty, lady, laundress, Madam, minx, Miss, Mistress, moonlighter, Mopsy, mother, mutton, natural, needlewoman, niece, nun, nymph, nymphet, omnibus, peach, pig, pinchprick, pirate, plover, Polly, princess, professional, Pug, quean, sister, slattern, slut, sow, spinster, squaw, sweetheart, tail trader, Tart, tickletail, tit, tramp, trollop, trot, twofer, underwear, warhorse, wench, whore, wife, witch
פʤΤϡбɽ魯췲ɬ̣ΰäƤʤȤspinster ȿȽˤФ bachelor ȿˡwitch ˤФ warlock ˤˡȤˤϥͥƥʴްդϤʤɤ餫ȤȥݥƥɾդƤ롥Ϸɽ魯 trot, heifer ʤɤŪϷɽ魯 geezer, codger ϾŪȤƤ⤽ٹ礤Ͼqueen ʽˤ quean ʤФˤ̤Byron "the Queen of queans" ʤɤȸͷӤƤ뤬Ф king ʲˤˤΤδްդϤʤprincess prince ƱͤоŪmother, sister, aunt, niece ΰ̣Ȥäб father, brother, uncle, nephew ˤϤε̣Ϥʤοȡɽ魯 footman, yeoman, squire ϰ̣βȤ뤬abbess, hussy, needlewoman ʤɽοȡ¿ professional θ줬Ƥ褦ˡưפˡοȡפؤžƤ椯㤤ɽ魯 boy, youth, stripling, lad, fellow, puppy, whelp ʤΩŪdoll, girl, nymph ŪȤʤ롥
ɽ魯ͭ̾⡤Фа̣ΰоݤȤʤ롥ޤȽξԤؼ뤳ȤǤ dog, pig, pirate ʤɤθǤ⡤ؼˤϡͥƥʰ̣դΤ⾯ʤʤϤ䡤ʬ߽ФƤΤǤ롥
Schulz, Muriel. "The Semantic Derogation of Woman." Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Ed. Barrie Thorne and Nancy Henley. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1975. 64--75.
Niyogi and Berwick ϡѲΥ塼˴ؤơ콬˴ؤ "dynamical systems model" ȤǥƤ롥Ѳ¿εS (logistic curve) ȤʤäƤ뤳ȤФưյSϤޤdzΨŪˤ褯ѥˤʤȼĥ롥
Dynamic envelopes are often logistic, but not always. We note that in some alternative models of language change the logistic shape has sometimes been assumed as a starting point, see e.g., Kroch (1990). However, Kroch concedes that "unlike in the population biology case, no mechanism of change has been proposed from which the logistic form can be deduced". On the contrary, we propose that language learning (or mislearning due to misconvergence) could be the engine driving language change. The nature of evolutionary behavior need not be logistic. Rather, it arises from more fundamental assumptions about the grammatical theory, acquisition algorithm, and sentence distributions. Sometimes the trajectories are S-shaped (often associated with logistic growth); but sometimes not . . . . (Niyogi and Berwick 715)
ǤڤƤ뤬ѲSиŪ˼Ƥ Kroch ⡤ѲΥ塼ȥƥåȤľŪ˷ӤĤŪʺϡΤȤ¸ߤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
ǤϡѲˤơSŪȯã (logistic growth) ʳˤϤɤΤ褦ʥ塼뤬ꤦ뤫ȤȡNiyogi and Berwick ϡ㤨СƼѥͤˤäƻؿؿŪȯã (exponential growth) ŪꤵȤƤ롥ȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

ۤˤѥ䤻мʣʥդNiyogi and Berwick dynamical systems model ظˤʣƻĶ뤬ѲˤSŪȤ뤳ȤϸǤȤݤˤϻƱǤ롥ǡ⡤ºݾ塤ѲˤS˵뤹륱¿ȤȤǧƤ롥SϡΨŪˤ꤬ʥѥǤ롤Ȥ٤ƤΤȤȤ
SˤĤƤϡ#855. lexical diffusion critical mass ([2011-08-30-1])#1551. óȻSؤȽ ([2013-07-26-1])#1569. óȻSؤȽ (2) ([2013-08-13-1])#1572. ʤѲSȹͤΤ ([2013-08-16-1]) ǤΤǡȤ줿
Niyogi, Partha and Robert C. Berwick. "A Dynamical Systems Model of Language Change." Linguistics and Philosophy 20 (1997): 697--719.
Kroch, Anthony S. "Reflexes of Grammar in Patterns of Language Change." Language Variation and Change 1 (1989): 199--244.
#1872. Constant Rate Hypothesis ([2014-06-12-1]) Kroch ξѲΥ塼˴ؤ벾֤Ϥ褽Sɽ蘆졤ΥѥϰۤʤŪĶˤƤ֤ⷫȤۤʤĶˤƤ⡤ѲƱߥƱѲΨǿʹԤȤΤβǤ롥⤷ĶȤζѥǤϤʤ褦˸ˤϡϴĶȤ˿Ƥ٤ǽŪʸŪװˤۤʤ뤫Ǥ롤Ȳ᤹롥
Kroch ΤβΩ벾ФƤ롥1Ĥϡ#1811. "The later a change begins, the sharper its slope becomes." ([2014-04-12-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Ǥ롥Ѳɽ魯ϡĶȤ˥ѥǤϤʤĶȤ˳ϻۤʤ뤷ѲΨ®١ˤۤʤ롤Ȥͤβϡ˰ʤǡϤĶǤѲŪˤäʹԤ뤬٤ϤĶǤѲŪ˵®˿ʹԤ롤ʤٵޡפĥ롥伫Ȥ⤳ε˴Ť路ʸ (Hotta 2010, 2012)
̤β⤢롥ѲɽĶȤ˥ѥǤϤʤĶȤ˳ϻۤʤ뤷ѲΨ®١ˤۤʤ롤ȼĥǤϾҤΡٵޡפβƱषȵդΥ塼Τ롥ĤޤꡤϤĶǤѲŪ˵®˿ʹԤ뤬٤ϤĶǤѲŪˤäȿʹԤ롤ȡٵޡפʤ̡ٴˡפǤ롥ϡBailey ѲθȤƼĥƤΤ1ĤǤ롥
Bailey ϸѲΥ塼˴ؤơ2ĤθƤ롥1ĤϸѲSȤΡ⤦1ĤϾ嵭θѲΡٴˡפȤĥ줾졤ĥսѤ褦
A given change begins quite gradually; after reaching a certain point (say, twenty per cent), it picks up momentum and proceeds at a much faster rate; and finally tails off slowly before reaching completion. The result is an ʃ-curve: the statistical differences among isolects in the middle relative times of the change will be greater than the statistical differences among the early and late isolects. (77)
What is quantitatively less is slower and later; what is more is earlier and faster. (If environment a is heavier-weighted than b, and if b is heavier than c, then: a > b > c.) (82)
2ܤΡٴˡפˤĤƤϡΰѤʬȤꡤŪ¿ʤüŪˤ١ˤȤѥͿƤ뤷Ƥ뤳Ȥդ줿ɤΤȤѲΥ塼뤬ĶȤ˰ۤʤ뤫ȤϡѲΥ塼⤦1Ĥ礭ꡤʤ٤ȸѲνȤȤͿʤΤ⤷ʤȻפ碌롥
ǤϡɤβΤ٤ꤹ뤳ȤϤǤʤ̤θѲˤĤơ¤иŪ˽ƤʤΤ
Kroch, Anthony S. "Reflexes of Grammar in Patterns of Language Change." Language Variation and Change 1 (1989): 199--244.
Hotta, Ryuichi. "Leaders and Laggers of Language Change: Nominal Plural Forms in -s in Early Middle English." Journal of the Institute of Cultural Science (The 30th Anniversary Issue II) 68 (2010): 1--17.
Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Order and Schedule of Nominal Plural Formation Transfer in Three Southern Dialects of Early Middle English." English Historical Linguistics 2010: Selected Papers from the Sixteenth International Conference on English Historical Linguistics (ICEHL 16), Pécs, 22--27 August 2010. Ed. Irén Hegedüs and Alexandra Fodor. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2012. 94--113.
Bailey, Charles-James. Variation and Linguistic Theory. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1973.
#1887. ˤͤݤ4Ĥλ ([2014-06-27-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡθؤθˤ͡ʥפꡤ¿θǸáʸˡˡˤߤۤǶεǼ夲ΤȤƤϡ#1900. ˽β ([2014-07-10-1]) ⤢롥ѸˤΤŦ뤳ȤϤۤɴñǤϤʤǤ#476. That's gorgeous! ([2010-08-16-1]) #913. BNC ˤä˽Ĵ ([2011-10-27-1]) #915. äˤѤ˽ ([2011-10-29-1]) ε¿θ餫ȤƤ褦ˡ̤˿Ƥʾ˱ѸˤȿǤƤ롥ܸ졤ʤȤŪѼǤϡ˸աˤȽաʽˤΤ˶̤Ȥ롥ܸΤ褦˽ŪΤʸդ gender-exclusive speechѸΤ褦˶̤ۤΤǤϤʤ˽λȤʬηϤȤդ gender-preferential speech ȸƤФƤ졤p. 84ˡ
ܸ줬 gender-exclusive Ǥդ˸դ̤ȤϤäƤ⡤θϸŪǤ롥㤨СŵŪʽդħȤƤϡͭν졦;λ졦λѡ̿Իѡʿʸʸˤ뽪֤Ρפλѡʡ֤錄繥ʤΡסˡ졦ɽ魯֤ϡס֤פξάʤɤˤ褽¤Ƥ롥⡤ǯŪʽդλѤϸƤꡤŪ˸դüԤѤ뷹ȤޤäơܸΥ˥åʤǤƤȤ롥ᤤ衤ܸ gender-exclusive speech ȸƤ³ΤŬڤʾˤʤäƤΤ⤷ʤ⤽ܸνդ˾夤ˤޤƤΤ
Įˡνδ֤ǡֽ˼פȸƤФո줿ȤȤˤȤϡˤȤΤäθոϡνȤνؤȹꡤֽ椳ȤСפȾΤ褦ˤʤ롥˹ͻˤȲߤ͵Į̼ͤؤȳȤäƤäͷԤνѤջȤͷΤˤȯãʣο̮ޤäơΡؿפΤäؿϡɺʸȤνҶˤơǫʶĤΤȤƿʤ줿ȤȤϥȳؤνθոä˰̤˹ޤꡤΡֽפȤƳΩƤä
ܸ줬ȤƤؤФ褦ˤʤäƤ븽ߡֽפʤ˽Ȥ˺ݤ뤳Ȥ̤ɬפʤΤɤȤ夬äƤƤ롥ǡ餫նŪʡֽפѶŪѤ뤳ȤˤäƼʰ̤ȤǤȤơŪɾ⤢ֽפβʹѤϻˤäƤѤ롥ߤμ¾˹碌ơֽפȤϲᤷƤȤɬפܸظŵ٤Ρֽפι (532--33) Ȥ줿
ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ
ܸظŵ١ ʸۤ ԡ2007ǯ
no ϡHave you ever been to Kyoto? Ф No, I haven't. Τ褦ˤơñȤȤѤ롥ʳ¿ˤꡤno ŵŪˤϷƻȤǧƤ롥ʸηƻȤơI have no money on me., He is no fool., Let there be no talking in class. Τ褦ѤۤηƻȤ No news is good news., The owl can see with no light., No homework, no TV., No objection. Τ褦ˤѤ롥
no ճˤ no ˡ¸ߤ롥ӵҷƻ֤㡤ޤ whether or no ʤɤȤ㤬Ǥ롥Ĥʸ褦
The sick man is no better.
You're no longer young.
I can walk no further.
There were no more than two books on the desk.
Their way of life is no different from ours.
I am no good at tennis.
I don't know whether it's true or no.
Rain or no, I have to leave tomorrow.
ӵȤι¤ȤƤ no + the + less 1ˤʤä natheless /ˈneɪθləs, ˈnæθləs/ (cf. nonetheless, nevertheless) ƱǤ롥Ǹ2Ĥʸ . . . or no ϡɸѸǤϳʼĥäǡ̾ . . . or not Ѥ롥ۤ We had no little rain. ʱʤɤǤϤʤäˤˤ no ⡤ƻ little ꤹȲǤ
嵭ηƻ no no ϡˡۤʤ졤Ǥ̾ƱùܤΤȤ˵ҤƤ롥츻ŪˤξԤ϶̤롥ƻ no ϡűѸη֤ǤС ne (not) ȿ ān (one, a(n)) 碌ʣǤ롥괧 a(n) ͭƻ my/mine ʿŪʲȯãˤꡤ³Ƭ첻 h ξˤ -n ݻ줿Ҳξˤ -n æ촴첻ϸűѸ ā Ѹ ō ؤȯãΤɸŪʷ֤ȿǤƤ롥츻ŪˤϿǤ뤫顤η no ϴŪ˷ƻǤ롥
Ѹ no ϡűѸθȤƤϡ ne (not) ā (ever, always, aye) ʣǤꡤ̣ȵǽˤƤ never ȤۤƱǤ롥ŪˤϷƻ no ȹή˵ǽŪ none ǻͻ͵ӤȯŸƤ
ήΤʤǡȤƤ none űѸ줫ȯŸȤӵȹ¤ʤ nanmore, non lengere, none the less 䡤He went to college but is none the better for it.ؤعԤäˤΩʤäˤʤɤˡƤ
ʸ嵭2022/10/02(Sun) 2021/06/18 Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ˤơ#17. ƻ no ̸츻פȤƼ夲ޤʲɤ
ññδ֤˥ڡʬȸƤǤ롥ܥ֥Ǥϡ#1112. ʬ (1) ([2012-05-13-1])#1113. ʬ (2) ([2012-05-14-1])#1114. ̾ϢʤϷѤ ([2012-05-15-1]) εǼ夲ƤʬϡѸޤѤηϤǤ뤵Ƥ뤬ޤΥƥɽˤơʬŪ˹ԤƤ櫓ǤϤʤѸˤȤƤߤСʬϡűѸ˥ꥹȶȤ˥ɤνƻΤˤäƤ⤿餵줿ǤꡤˤϰճȿHorobin (72) ۩
. . . we need to remember that word division and the use of blank spaces between words was a relatively new phenomenon when the Beowulf manuscript was written. In Antiquity manuscripts were written using scriptio continua, a continuous script without any breaks between words at all. The practice of dividing words in the way we do today was introduced by the Irish monks who brought Christianity to the Northumbrians.
ޤŪ³ (scriptio continua) ꡤŪʬ (distinctiones) ǽ˥ƥʤɿ͡Ƹ˥ͤˤäƺѤ뤳ȤˤʤäȤϡǤϤʤܸüԤϡʬʤҤ餬ʤʸϤɤߤˤܸΤäƤʾ塤ʤȤʤ롥ܸȤʤؽԤˤȤäƤϡɤߤˤƱͤˡƥȤΤ scriptio continua ǽ줿ƥʸϤɤΤѤ줿⤷ʤȤƤΥƥγؽԤǤäűѸΥɿͤ䥤ɿͤ϶ϫ줿ϡɤߤ䤹ȲΤ䤹ơˡ˰⤿餹ȤˤʤäΤǤ롥դλˤĤơClemens and Graham 2սѤ롥
In late antiquity, scribes wrote literary texts in scriptura continua (also sometimes called scriptio continua), that is, without any separation between the words. Moreover, often they did not enter any marks of punctuation on the page. In many cases, punctuation was added by the reader, in particular by the reader who had to recite the text aloud. Such punctuation was often only sporadic, inserted at those points where it was necessary to counteract possible ambiguity (for example, when it was not immediately clear where one word ended and another began). (83)
Irish and Anglo-Saxon scribes made notable contributions to the use and development of the distinctiones system. Following their conversion to Christianity in the fifth and sixth through seventh centuries, respectively, the Irish and the Anglo-Saxons copied Latin texts avidly. Because their native languages were not directly related to Latin, these scribes required more visual cues to understand Latin than did Italian, Spanish, or French scribes. It was Irish scribes who were primarily responsible for the introduction of the practice of word separation, a major contribution to what has been called the "grammar of legibility." Once word separation became common, later scribes sometimes "updated earlier manuscripts by placing a punctus between words in texts originally written in scriptura continua. (83--84)
ꥹνƻΤϡƥ scriptio continua ɤߤˤ¤餬Ȥˤϸȸδ֤˥ڡ봷ΩǤ scriptio continua ǽƤޤäƤʸϤˤĤƤϡȸδ֤˶뤳Ȥǡɤߤ䤹ݤ褦ȤäơŪʶڤ ("grammar of legibility") Τˤ뤿ˡʬʳˤ⤤ĤμʤԤ߽ФΤǤȤ櫓ͭʴȤƳΩΤʬä
䤿Ѹνդˤ뤷ƤʬȤϡؽԤθɤ߽ưפˤ뤿Ԥ߽ФسؽΥƥ˥åͳ褹ΤǤ롥ǤϡʸηȤ̤Ȥ롥
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Clemens, Raymond and Timothy Graham. Introduction to Manuscript Studies. Ithaca & London: Cornel UP, 2007.
ѸˤǤϡդɸಽδäϡ14Ⱦ15ˤƤΥɥۤ줿ȹͤƤ롥ܥ֥Ǥϡ#306. Samuels ѸȯãȤɸ4ס ([2010-02-27-1])#929. ѸɸδפȤʤäͳ ([2011-11-12-1])#1228. ѸˤˤɸѸȯŸȳΩäơ ([2012-09-06-1])#1245. ʣŪβȤƤνȤɸѸȯŸ ([2012-09-23-1]) ʤɤεǼ夲Ƥ
λθ塤ѸˤưѤƳȯŸȤ⡤ֻɸಽή˴ŪʱƶڤܤȹͤƤ롥#297. ѤƳϱѸɸಽʤݤ ([2010-02-18-1]) #871. Ѥȯˤֻθ경˷ӤĤʤäͳ ([2011-09-15-1]) #1312. Ѥȯˤֻθ경˷ӤĤʤäͳ (2) ([2012-11-29-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡǶϤΰոФưФƤ뤬ʤȤѸ˾ΥߥȤƤϡѤоλֻɸಽˤ䤫˿ʤǤȤϤ褽ŤʤäƤ롥
Ѹ줫ѸˤƤΤλˡäդǤѲ¿äƤ첻 (Great Vowel Shift; [2009-11-18-1]) ɮƬˡ#1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1]) ǵ褦ʼλҲξüʹԤƤäդѲƤˤ⤫餺դɸಽƤȤȤϡ˾ȸ虜ʤǡḽѸֻȯЪΥ (spelling_pronunciation_gap) Ƥޤä
Τ褦ήؤơѸֻɸಽϡ˾塤ʥߥƤޤäȤ롥Ѳդ®ȤֺϡʬŪˤϡȤֺбƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤΰ̣ǤϤˤƤ뤳ȤϡˤǤȤȤǤ⤢Τ⤷ʤΤСѸˤˤֻɸಽϡδä14--15ۤ줿Ȥ¤ǤʤȤ°ɥϤۤ줿Ȥ¤ˤطƤ롥Horobin (84--85) ŦƤ褦ˡƱ椷ƤäݼŪäΥɥֻɸಽδפ˿줿Ȥΰ̣礭
㤨СǤϡ<gh> ʤɤֻɽ蘆Ƥ /ç, x/ ϤǤ̵ȤʤäƤꡤ"knight" <nit>, "doughter" <datter> ʤɤ֤ƤǤϤλҲϤޤƤ餺ä <gh> ֻ¸졤ḽɸŪֻ <knight>, <doughter> Τʤ˸경뤳Ȥˤʤä /ç, x/ ξüȤѲϸؤڤΤǡɡɸŪֻ <nit> Ȥʤ뤫 <knight> Ȥʤ뤫κϡֺǤȤȤǤȤͤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ɸಽ <wh> ֻˤĤƤƱȤ롥ĤǤǤ /h/ ƤݼŪʥɥȯˤƤ /h/ ݤƤˡɸŪֻΤʤˤ <h> ȤƸ경뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤäŪɾСȯˤĤƤϿŪŪʤΤ¿ɸδפȤʤꡤֻˤĤƤݼŪŪʤΤ¿ɸδפȤʤäȤϢơѸθѲΡ̤ءפȾŤˤĤơ#941. ѸθѲϤʤ̤ŤΤ ([2011-11-24-1]) ӡ#1843. conservative radicalism ([2014-05-14-1]) Ȥ줿
ʤ /x/ ˴ؤơǤ /f/ ؤȯŸdough ʴˤб duff ʥաʴθǤץǥˤؼѤ줿㤬ʡ#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1]) ⻲ȡˡΤ褦ȯֻȤδط̩Ǥ㤬ä¿äʤСḽɸŪֻäľʤΤˤʤäȤϤꡤѸֻɸಽˤϡ֤Ǥʤ֤⺮äƤ롥
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
#1890. ФȤȤ˸ոѤ ([2014-06-30-1]) εǡage-grading ȤҲؾγǰѸҲ𤷤Ѳμ¾Ūˤơage-grading βǽϾǰƬˤƤʤФʤʤȤΤϡѻԤߵäƤŪʡʤäñȯΡ˸ѲȤǤȻפǤݤºݤˤ巫֤Ƥ age-grading ˤʤäȤȤ뤫դˡ巫֤ age-grading ȿƤ븽ݤºݤˤϤλͭΰ¤θѲǤ뤫⤷ʤ
Ǥϡѻθ츽ݤθѲʤΤ age-grading ʤΤʬˤϡɤФ褤Τ߿ʹθѲѻˡȤơ2λΤƤ롥apparent time real time Ǥ롥Trudgill Ѹ콸ꡤ줾Ѥ褦
apparent-time studies Studies of linguistic change which attempt to investigate language changes as they happen, not in real time (see real-time studies), but by comparing the speech of older speakers with that of younger speakers in a given community, and assuming that differences between them are due to changes currently taking place within the dialect of that community, with older speakers using older forms and younger speakers using newer forms. As pointed out by William Labov, who introduced both the term and the technique, it is important to be able to distinguish in this comparison of age-groups between ongoing language changes and differences that are due to age-grading (Trudgill 9--10)
real-time studies Studies of linguistic change which attempt to investigate language changes as they happen, not in apparent time by comparing the speech of older speakers with that of younger speakers in a given community, but in actual time, by investigating the speech of a particular community and then returning a number of years later to investigate how speech in this community has changed. In secular linguistics, two different techniques have been used in real-time studies. In the first, the same informants are used in the follow-up study as in the first study. In the second, different informants, who were too young to be included in the first study or who were not then born, are investigated in the follow-up study. One of the first linguists to use this technique was Anders Steinsholt, who carried out dialect research in the southern Norwegian community of Hedrum, near Larvik, in the late 1930s, and then returned to carry out similar research in the late 1960s. (Trudgill 109)
apparent-time studies ϡ̻ΰ̤ˤ庹θѤоȤ뤳Ȥǡ߿ʹθѲŪͤߤ褦ȤˡǤ롥ߤȤ1ΤߤΩäĴǤˡȤƴؤǤϤ뤬餫ˤʤä庹̤ƿθѲʤΤ age-grading ʤΤ̤ˡǡ̾ real-time studies ˤäơ˸ˤɬפ롥
real-time studies ϡ̻ʣˤĴɬפꡤʬºݾμ֤Ϥ뤬θѲ age-grading ʬΤɬפʥǡꤹ뤳ȤǤȤ롥
ŪºŪʴϡѲĴݤˤξˡȤ߹碌ΤʲȤʤ뤳Ȥ¿ɤΤȤŪĴ³Ĵ̤ǡ١Ѥ߽ŤͤƹԤȤοʤΤƱͳǡŪ˶Ūѥ³ƤȤ⡤˸ؼԤˤȤäƽפʲǤ롥
apparent time real time ˤĤƤϡ#919. Asia ȯ ([2011-11-02-1]) Ǥ줿ΤǡȤ
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
(gender) äʸˡȿǤ뤳ȤϹΤƤ뤬ȿǤϿȶʸˤϸʤƱǤⱤΧ (prosody) ޤǴޤƹͤС㤨ܸΥȥ͡ʤɤˤ˽ꤽ˻פ뤬ˤĤƤϤɤ
Trudgill (64, 67) ϡθ줫顤ˤߤ˽ĤƤ롥ƹä轻̱θ Gros Ventre ʥȥˤǤϡüԤθĺüԤθĺбȤ㤨Сѥɽ魯Τ /djatsa/ ȯ /kjatsa/ ȯ롥
쥢ä Yukaghir ǤϡüԤ /tj/, /dj/ ϽüԤ /ts/, /dz/ ˤ줾б롥ʬۤñȿǤƤǤʤǯȤѥˤбƤ롥Ҷ̤ˤ餺 /ts/, /dz/ Ѥ뤬Ĺ /tj/, /dj/ ڤؤ롥ޤǯۤˤʤ˽鷺 /cj/, /jj/ Ѥ褦ˤʤ롥äơ21 (palatalisation) زڤؤи뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ϡ#1890. ФȤȤ˸ոѤ ([2014-06-30-1]) Ǥߤ age_grading 1Ǥ롥
ƹ Louisiana ä轻̱θ Koasati ˤĤ1930ǯ˹Ԥ줿ĴˤСǤ˾äƤݤǤϤ뤬ưη֤ˡʲΤ褦˽줿Ȥ
| male | felame | |
| 'He is saying' | /kɑːs/ | /kɑ̃/ |
| 'Don't lift it' | /lɑkɑučiːs/ | /lɑkɑučin/ |
| 'He is peeling it' | /mols/ | /mol/ |
| 'You are building a fire' | /oːsc/ | /oːst/ |

#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1])#1675. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (2) ([2013-11-27-1])#1677. Ƭ <h> ˤˤĤƤν ([2013-11-29-1]) ʤɤ˰³Ƥꡥ
ε#1898. ƥˤ⤢ä h-dropping ؤ ([2014-07-08-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡƥˤ /h/ æƤ꽤 (hypercorrection) ⤷Феǡæϻߤ褦ʤη̤ϸΥޥˤȿǤ뤳Ȥˤʤäʤŵƥˡ <h> бҲϡեޤޥ̵ȤƷѾ졤եͳƱѸؤѤ줿Ȥƥˡֻ <h> ΤΤĹϼˤꡤ˼뤳ȤϤʤ衼åѤνؤä̤ȤơˤơβѲη̤ȤƤ̵ȿŪʵϼθֻ <h> ȤĹ餯礦Ȥˤʤä
ѸǤ⡤ƥͳ褹ˤ <h> ݻѸռƤä#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡϽѸˤߤ뤳Ȥˤʤ츻Ū֤ (etymological_respelling) ȤơѸ˾ɾ٤ݤˤĤƤ Horobin (80--81) ʲΤ褦ˤäȸڤƤΤߤϤäɾ⤯ä٤Ȼפ
Because of the loss of initial /h/ in French, numerous French loanwords were borrowed into Middle English without an initial /h/ sound, and were consequently spelled without an initial <h>; thus we find the Middle English spellings erbe 'herb', and ost 'host'. But, because writers of Middle English were aware of the Latin origins of these words, they frequently 'corrected' these spellings to reflect their Classical spelling. As a consequence, there is considerable variation and confusion about the spelling of such words, and we regularly find pairs of spellings like heir, eyr, here, ayre, ost, host. The importance accorded to etymology in determining the spelling of such words led ultimately to the spellings with initial <h> becoming adopted; in some cases the initial /h/ has subsequently been restored in the pronunciation, so that we now say hotel and history, while the <h> remains silent in French hôtel and histoire.
ḽѸʤ餺Ȥ˱Ѹˤ h-dropping ϰˤ̤˹ͤƤᤤʳǸ츻Ū֤Ϥ˴ͿƤȤơѸ˾塤겼յΤȥԥåǤ롥
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ѸˤˤҲ /h/ ˤĤơ#214. ʻҲ /h/ ([2009-11-27-1]) #459. ʻҲ /h/ (2) ([2010-07-30-1]) #494. hypercorrection ˤ h ([2010-09-03-1])#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1])#1675. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (2) ([2013-11-27-1])#1677. Ƭ <h> ˤˤĤƤν ([2013-11-29-1]) ۤh h-dropping ʤɤε¿夲Ƥ
Ѹʸ塤ҲŪʴؿŪȤʤäƤѸѼ h-dropping εˤĤƤϽ⤢뤬Ѹˡ<h> ֻΤη褷 /h/ ȤȯʤեѸ줬̤˱ѸήǤȤľܡܤαƶͿƤȤȤϡǧƤ褤եΤߤʤ餺ڥ䥤ꥢʤɤΥޥ /h/ ȯʤΤϡƥʳƱæǤ롥äơѸ h-dropping ʥϡȸĶơǽŪˤϥƥ1ĤβѲ˵뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
⤷ȤˡƥǤ /h/ æ褦ˤʤäƤȡޤζܿͤϡæ¯ŪȯȤ褦ˤʤäΤȤϡˡȤ <h> ֤٤ǤϤʤȤ <h> Ƥ뤳ȤФĤäƤ뤳ȤΤ롥λ h-dropping Ф꽤 (hypercorrection) äΤǤꡤۤɤޤǤ h-dropping ŪäȤڵȤߤʤȤǤ롥λϡޤٳ Gaius Valerius Catullus (84?--54? B.C.) ˤΤǤ롥ʲCatullus Poem 84 ±Ǥ롥
1 CHOMMODA dicebat, si quando commoda uellet ARRIUS, if he wanted to say "winnings " used to say "whinnings", 2 dicere, et insidias Arrius hinsidias, and for "ambush" "hambush"; 3 et tum mirifice sperabat se esse locutum, and thought he had spoken marvellous well, 4 cum quantum poterat dixerat hinsidias. whenever he said "hambush" with as much emphasis as possible. 5 credo, sic mater, sic liber auunculus eius. So, no doubt, his mother had said, so his uncle the freedman, 6 sic maternus auus dixerat atque auia. so his grandfather and grandmother on the mother's side. 7 hoc misso in Syriam requierant omnibus aures When he was sent into Syria, all our ears had a holiday; 8 audibant eadem haec leniter et leuiter, they heard the same syllables pronounced quietly and lightly, 9 nec sibi postilla metuebant talia uerba, and had no fear of such words for the future: 10 cum subito affertur nuntius horribilis, when on a sudden a dreadful message arrives, 11 Ionios fluctus, postquam illuc Arrius isset, that the Ionian waves, ever since Arrius went there, 12 iam non Ionios esse sed Hionios are henceforth not "Ionian," but "Hionian."
Ȥʤսϡ1ܤ <commoda> vs <chommoda>2ܤ <insidias> vs <hinsidias>, 12ܤ <Ionios> vs <Hionios> Ǥ롥<h> ɬפΤʤȤ <h> ֤Ƥ꽤ȤޤäƤ롥θǤ뤫ˤϡοǤ롥λ˴ؤ Harrison ɾˤС12ܤ <Inoios> <Hionios> ȡʵϼŪʴ鸫ơ˸äֻǽȤˤꡤˤߤɽФƤȤHarrison ". . . the last word of the poem should be χιoνέoυς. When Arrius crossed, his aspirates blew up a blizzard, and the sea has been snow-swept ever since." (198--99) ȽҤ٤Ƥꡤä <Hionios> ꥷ χιoνέoυς (snowy) ȰäƤΤȲᤷƤ롥ơ10ܤ nuntius horribilis ͽ𤷤ƤȤ⤤Arrius β꽤ˤ /h/ 7ܤ nuntius horribilis ͽ𤵤Ƥ褦ˡ٤Ȥ硼
Harrison (199) ϡϤޤơCatullus Τ褦ʥޤζܿͤˤ h ˴ؤκϡ¿ Venetic ¤Фиʤظαƶ (substratum_theory) ˤ뼪ʥƥѼФŪɾˤΤǤʤȤƱͤ Etruscan ¤ФиȤԤ⤤褦θϤˤ speculation ΰФΤǤϤʤḽѸ h-dropping ؤ stigmatisation ȽŤ碌ƹͤȶ̣
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Harrison, E. "Catullus, LXXXIV." The Classical Review 29.7 (1915): 198--99.
#1875. acrostic ([2014-06-15-1]) εǡѸܸ줫 acrostic ʤͷӤߤűѸˤ acrostic λ롥The Rune Poem ȸƤФ6ᤫʤǡγʸФȡϥ롼ʸ켰θƾΤǤ "FUÞORC" Ȥñ줬⤫Ӿ夬ʡ#1006. 롼ʸѼ ([2012-01-28-1]) ȡˡCrystal (13) ꡤThe Rune Poem ̣ɤ褦ƻԤƬ (alliteration) §ŪǤ롥
Feoh byþ frofur fira gehwylcum--- Wealth is a joy to every man--- sceal ðeah manna gehwylc miclun hyt dælan but every man must share it well gif he wile for Drihtne domes hleotan. if he wishes to gain glory in the sight of the Lord. Ur byþ anmod 7 oferhyrned, Aurochs is fierce, with gigantic horns, felafrecne deor, feohteþ mid hornum, a very savage animal, it fights with horns, mære morstapa: þæt is modig wuht! a well-known moor-stepper: it is a creature of courage! Þorn byþ ðearle scearp, ðegna gehwylcum Thorn is very sharp, harmful to every man anfeng ys yfyl, ungemetun reþe who seizes it, unsuitably severe manna gehwylcun ðe him mid resteð. to every man who rests on it. Os byþ ordfruma ælcre spræce, Mouth is the creator of all speech, wisdomes wraþu and witena frofur a supporter of wisdom and comfort of wise men, and eorla gehwam eadnys and tohiht. and a blessing and hope to every man. Rad byþ on recyde rinca gehwylcum Journey is to every warrior in the hall sefte, and swiþhwæt ðam ðe sitteþ onufan pleasant, and bitingly tough to him who sits meare mægenheardum ofer milpaþas. on a mighty steed over the mile-paths. Cen byþ cwicera gehwam cuþ on fyre, Torch is to every living thing known by its fire; blac and beorhtlic, byrneþ oftust bright and brilliant, it burns most often ðær hi æþelingas inne restaþ. where the princes take their rest within.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ܸθ줬ƻޤ줿Τϡ16ȾФǤ롥#1879. ܸˤˡ ([2014-06-19-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡݥȥͤ褬äꥹȶѸȤȤ˰ŪѸ⤿餵줿Ԥϸ˶ضȤʤäȤ⤢ä夷ʤäԤǤϡإȥͭʿ(alfeloa) ƥ (Castella)å (capa)ܥCambodia)륵ʷסcalsãnˡ륿 (carta)ڥȥʶʿconfeitosˡ饵ʹӡsaraçaˡܥ (zamboa)ܥ (sabão)ХۡgibãoˡХʱtabacoˡ (charamela)ȥ (tutanaga)ѥ (pão)ӥɥ (vidro)ӥåȡʥӥåȡbiscoitoˡӥ (veludo)ե饹 (frasco)֥ (blanço)ܥ (bolo)ܥ (botão) ʤɤĤä16ˤϥڥäƤ夷Τϥ䥹 (medias) 餤ä
ؤȡμѸ줬ήǤ롥ʳؤθä¿˷طθääޤءؤǤϡƥ (ether) (extract)֥顼 (oblaat)륷 (calcium)ե (kamfer, kampher) (cholera)ꥹ (digitalis)ݥ (spuit)ڥ (pest) (mes)ҥ (morphine)ءʪŷʸǤϡ륫 (alkali)륳 (alcohol)쥭ƥ (electriciteit)ѥ (kompas) (soda)ƥ쥹 (telescoop)ԥ (brandpunt) (lenz)طǤϡ르 (orgel)ޥ (diamant) (koffij)å (kok)åסkop; cf. #1027. åפȥåס ([2012-02-18-1])ˡ (gom)å (siroop)å (schop)å (doek)åסʥסsoepˡå (jak)ӡ (bier)֥ꥭ (blik)ڥ (pen)ڥ (pek), ݥ (pomp)ۥå (hoek)ۥå (hop) (lamp)طǤϡ٥ (sabel)ԥȥ (pistool)ɥ (ransel)
ˤθΤʤǤϱѸ줬ͥȤʤäƤ뤬ˤϤޤ֥åסס֥ɥȥפʤɥѸλѤƤʹߤϱѸϤȾ褦ˤʤꡤΡ֥åספѸΡ֥ספִ줿褦ˡȯѸؤ줵Ƥ롥ѸʳθȤƤϡ龼¤ˤƥɥĸʼ˰ءлůشطˡեʼ˷ݽѡطˡꥢʼ˲ڴطˡ⸫褦ˤʤä줾Ƥߤ褦
ɥĸ졧ΥNeuroseˡơKarteˡGazeˡץKapselˡ說VakzinˡǥIdeologieˡߥʡSeminarˡơޡThemaˡơTheseˡååRucksackˡSeilˡҥåơHütteˡ֥顼 (Oblate), 쥪 (Kreosot)
ե졧ǥådessinˡconcoursˡchansonˡޥromanˡץespritˡgenreˡȥꥨatelierˡcrayonˡ롼rougeˡͥꥸnégligeˡġomeletteˡ˥åcognacˡѥchampagneˡޥ͡mayonnaise
ꥢ졧ڥoperaˡʥsonataˡƥݡtempoˡեʡfinaleˡޥˡmacaroniˡѥåƥspaghetti
졧åvodkaˡѡkampaniyaˡڥpechkaˡΥޡnorma
θ8䤬ѸϤǤꡤѤоݤȤʤѸѼȤƤʿϤDZѤƤؤڤؤä
ʾ塤ƣ (179--80, 185--86) Ӳƣ¾ (74) ȤƼɮϢơ#1645. ܸθʬۡ ([2013-10-28-1])#1526. Ѹܸθûоɽ ([2013-07-01-1])#1067. Ѹȸܸθüѡ ([2012-03-29-1]) ε⻲Ȥ줿
ƣ س⡡ܸˡ١īҽŹ1995ǯ
ƣ ɧ ɹ ԡܸ쳵١դ1989ǯ
ꥹȶȥƥñμѤδطˤĤơ#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1]) #1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1]) ʤɤεǼ夲ƤѤ˴ؤȤơ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1])#1778. Ѹ츦 to-do list ([2014-03-10-1]) ʤɤεƤϡűѸΥƥѸֻȤ𤷤ơѤͻƤߤ
űѸˤϡꥹȶȤȤˡ¿νѸѸ줬ƥ줫ѸνդؤȤ⤿餵줿apostol (L apostulus), abbod (L abbadem), fenix (L phoenix), biscop (L episcopus) ʤɤǤ롥դ٤ϡѤκݤˡȯˤֻˤ衤ƥη֤ΤޤѤΤǤϤʤ¿ʬ˱Ѹ첽ƼǤ뤳ȤǤ롥Ȥ10˥ƥѤΤ⤦1ĤȤäȤˤϡƥñϱѸ첽줺ۤܤΤޤޤη֤ǼѤƤ롥ĤޤꡤűѸΥƥѤ2ĤȤδ֤ˤϡŪʺäȤˤʤ롥κHorobin (64--65) ϼΤ褦˻ŦƤ롥
What is striking about these loanwords is that their pronunciation and spelling has been assimilated to Old English practices, so that the spelling-sound correspondences were not disturbed. Note, for instance, the spelling mynster, which shows the Old English front rounded vowel /y/, the <æ> in Old English mæsse, indicating the Old English front vowel. The Old English spelling of fenix with initial <f> shows that the word was pronounced the same way as in Latin, but that the spelling was changed to reflect Old English practices. While the spelling of Old English biscop appears similar to that of Latin episcopus, the pronunciation was altered to the /ʃ/ sound, still heard today in bishop, and so the <sc> spelling retained its Old English usage. This process of assimilation can be contrasted with the fate of the later loanword, episcopal, borrowed from the same Latin root in the fifteenth century but which has retained its Latin spelling and pronunciation. However, during the third state of Latin borrowing in the tenth century, a number of words from Classical Latin were borrowed which were not integrated into the native language in the same way. The foreign status of these technical words was emphasized by the preservation of their Latinate spellings and structure, as we can see from a comparison of the tenth-century Old English word magister (Latin magister), with the earlier loan mægester, derived from the same Latin word. Where the earlier borrowing has been respelled according to Old English practices, the later adoption has retained its classical Latin spelling.
ѤμȤƤϡƥη֤˴ŤƤȤ substitution ǤϤʤ importation Ǥ롥Ʊ importation ȤäƤ⡤ϥǥ뤫æֻˤϥǥ¤ֻˤǤꡤimportation ȤǤٺ롥 substitution ǤϤʤΤԤϸԤ substitution ˰ᤤ importation Ǥ롤ɽ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫⤷ʤäդǤȤСԤϥƥñѸŪȯǼ뤳ȤˡԤϸǤƥȯǼ뤳Ȥ롥äݤȤСñܸؼѤȤ˥ʽ뤫ѸƱ褦˥ե٥åȤ֤뤫ȤƱȤűѸǤϡˡ뤫ˤäưۤʤäƤȤΤ̣
ѸΥǥؤζ٤ȤݤˡƤŪ˼ѤͻݤˡֻκȤѥͿȤΤϡȯäϢơ줬ѤȤ importation Ǥ٤ȡѤ줿˽˼Ʊ٤Ȥζ̤Τˤɬפ뤫⤷ʤ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
#1868. Ѹ͡ʡַס ([2014-06-08-1]) εǡѸˤַפɽ魯͡ʸ줬ưʪ̤벿餫ʸȿǤƤ뤫Ȥɬ⤽Ȥϸ¤餺ñʤեˤʤȤݤεҲ𤷤ˤĤƤϰ뤫⤷ʤѸ줬ޤäƤޥ˥Ϥˤϡʸʸ˻٤줿äưʪѤäȹͤ뤷줬äκʬشطˤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤΤˤ̤ǡشطϤꤽʤȤ⸡ڤɬפϤ롥
ʤȤŦǤʤȤϡθäκʬϡߤʸ⡤ĤƤʸȿǤƤٹ礤ΤۤȤȤ餯ϤĤƤʸǻǤФƤΤǤꡤʸϸߤޤǤޤäƤޤäΤΡʬ줿äǤޤĤäƤȤȤǤϤʤʬ줿äΤʤˤϡߤʸȿǤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ㤬¿ΤǤϤʤ
㤨Сܸˤ͡ʼαɽ魯줬˭٤ˤꡤܡʸˤαʸθΤǤȼĥ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤسظܸμŵ٤86Ƥߤ褦
ʤˡīʤˡʤˡʤˡáʤˡʤˡβ夷ʤΤϤʤˡձʤˡ챫ʤˡ߱ʤŤˡ漾ʤˡʤˡһʤˡűʤˡʤˡαʤΤˡαʤΤˡʤˡѤβʤĤͤΤᤤˡڤβήʤΤʤˡޱʤ夦ˡDZʤ礦ˡ̸ʤꤵˡڱʤˡȱʤˡߤαʤФΤˡʤˡDZʤ̤ˡٱʤˡŲֱʤˡʤ餢ˡʤߤˡʤ褷ˡʤˡϱʤˡ屫ʤˡʤˡʤˡͤʤΤĤˡ˿ʤ֤ˡʤ夦ˡ屫ʤ夦ˡáʤ夦ˡɱʤ夯ˡձʤˡáʤˡӱʤˡ鱫ʤˡ𱫡ʤˡıʤˡѱʤˡ±ʤˡαʤΤˡ̡ʤˡµޱʤǤˡȱʤˡŴˤʤƤäݤˡȤߤ걫ʤƤդꤢˡ౫ʤȤˡ̤걫ʤȤꤢˡפʤȤ餬ˡڼ߱ʤʤͤŤˡޱʤʤߤˡDZʤ̤ˡﱫʤϤˡʤϤˡʤФˡ֤αʤϤʤΤˡջʤϤ뤷ˡʤҤˡɹʤҤˡɪޱʤҤˡ뱫ʤܤˡѱ¼ʤ餵ˡѻ¼ʤ餷ˡ߱ʤɤŤˡ뱫ʤ䤦ˡ餺αʤ餺Τˡʤ椭ˡñʤ礦ˡбʤ礯ˡñʤˡ䱫ʤ줤ˡʤ줤ˡձʤ狼Фˡ䱫ʤ錄
αθä¿ϼˤܤäƤ뤬ǻѤƤΤϸ¤Ƥ롥ϡĤƤαʸθƤȤĹ֤˰ޤƤʸθƤȤϸ̤ܸ߰üԤ˶ͭƤ븽αʸθƤȤɬȤϤǤʤ褦˻פ롥ºݡɮԤϡɪޱפȤϲμǸĤޤʹȤʤäµޤˤƤΤۤɤΤ鷺ʱȤΤȤ
εΡַפɽ魯ѸθäˤĤơJespersen (430--31) Τ褦˸äƤսĤ
In old Gothonic poetry we find an astonishing abundance of words translated in our dictionaries by 'sea,' 'battle,' 'sword,' 'hero,' and the like: these may certainly be considered as relics of an earlier state of things, in which each of these words had its separate shade of meaning, which was subsequently lost and which it is impossible now to determine with certainty. The nomenclature of a remote past was undoubtedly constructed upon similar principles to those which are still preserved in a word-group like horse, mare, stallion, foal, colt, instead of he-horse, she-horse, young horse, etc. This sort of grouping has only survived in a few cases in which a lively interest has been felt in the objects or animals concerned. We may note, however, the different terms employed for essentially the same idea in a flock of sheep, a pack of wolves, a herd of cattle, a bevy of larks, a covey of partridges, a shoal of fish. Primitive language could show a far greater number of instances of this description, and, so far, had a larger vocabulary than later languages, though, of course, it lacked names for a great number of ideas that were outside the sphere of interest of uncivilized people. (430--31)
ʬ줿ä "survive" 뤳ȤŦƤ뤬ʸΤΤϤ褽ֻפˤ⤫餺äĤäפȤͤɽ魯Τ
Jespersen ϡŪ˸äκʬϸθŪʳΤǤꡤȯŸȤȤ˺ʬηϾäƤ椯ȤѤƤ롥ַפΤ褦ʸä˴ϢƤ⡤"The more advanced a language is, the more developed is its power of expressing abstract or general ideas. Everywhere language has first attained to expressions for the concrete and special." (429) ȽҤ٤Ƥ̤ꡤȯŸȤϡֶΤݤءפήǤȳοƤ롥θѤϡػŪʴįɬפ롥#1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1]) Ȥ줿
Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
ε ([2014-07-02-1]) κǸˡإܥֻΤʤǡȤ櫓ѸȹͤΤȤ <sh>, <ch>, <j> 3ѸˡȤСֻŪʰ̣ǡֱѸפǤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥ΡֱѸפȤǧѸˤȤΩŪʴįȡΤȤ館ѤäƤ뤫⤷ʤŪˤϡֻɬѸŪȤϤʤǤ롥
ޤ<sh> = /ʃ/ ˡȤƳΩΤ15溢ΤȤˤʤűѸǤϡλҲ <sc> ȤŻ (digraph) ǵ§Ū֤ƤŻѸؤѤ줿ѸǤ͡ʰ֤꤬ΩΤʤפƤä㤨СѸ <ship> бΤȤơѸǤ <chip>, <scip>, <schip>, <ship>, <sip>, <ssip> ʤɤֻߤ롥ΤʤǡѸǤ褯Ѥ줿Τ <sch> Ū <sh> ϡ13Ƭ Orm Ƥĵ§ŪѤٰŪˤʤäΤ14Υɥ Chaucer ʤɤ <sh> Ѥ褦ˤʤäƤǤ롥θ塤<sh> 15溢˹褦ˤʤꡤ17ޤǤ¾ΰ֤ѤɤΤ褦ˡŻ <sh> δϡѸھȯȤϳΤѸΰ֤ȤĹˤ褦䤯ޤäǤꡤѸεȤʤäƤˤϤۤĹΤǤϤʤ (Upward and Davidson 157)
ˡ<ch> = /ʧ/ бεϡʤǤ롥λҲϡűѸǤŵŪ첻֤˸졤§Ū <c> ֤줿Ѳη̡<c> ƱĶ /k/ ɽ魯褦ˤʤꡤŤĤ˻äξطʤˤäȤȡѸ Norman French ֻϤʱƶϤäȤˤꡤѸǤϼ Norman French <ch> = /ʧ/ ̤Ȥʤä12ˤϡűѸŪ <c> = /ʧ/ бϤۤȤѤ졤űѸͳñʹߤä <ch> ֤ľ褦ˤʤäŻ <ch> μƤˤϡʸȲΤбܻؤŪȡNorman French ֻοʽФȤ쳰ŪװȤͿƤΤǤ (Upward and Davidson 100)
<j> ˤĤƤϡ#1828. j ʸȲбˤĤƺˬ ([2014-04-29-1]) ȡ#1650. ʸǤȤƤ j Ω ([2013-11-02-1]) Ǹ褦ˡեѸ̤줿ѸˡϤեֻޤͤΤ˱ѸǤ夷ˤʤºݡ<j> ǻϤޤñϸ§ȤƱѸǤϤʤ
ʾΤ褦ˡǤϡֱѸפǧƤ <sh>, <ch>, <j> ⡤夹ޤǤֻäΤǤꡤ餫ŵŪˡֱѸפä櫓ǤϤʤ<ch> <j> 2Ĥ˻äƤϡΥեåʥ֥ʸǤեֻǤäѸ줬ϤΥեƤ褦ˡܸ줬ߤϤαѸƤȤƤäˤʤֻˡ⡤ĬήȤȤѲ뤳Ȥ⤢Ѱۤ⤹ΤǤ롥ơܿˤƶϡήԤҿʤɤμҲŪװ˰¸ΤǤ롥Ρɾ⡤ŪʴޤΩŪˤʤɬפȹͤ롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
#1879. ܸˤˡ ([2014-06-19-1]) εǿ줿褦ˡܸˤѤδѤϡ 1954ǯܤȤƹ֥ΤĤŤ˵äƤ롥͡ʵ˾29ǯ12˹줿ΤǤꡤޤǤδѤƤơɽʡᷱἰˤɽʡإܥɽˤ줿ܼˤޤŪƤä֤ޤפˤСɽȤʤ⡤Ūط䴷ˤäƲˤɽˤäƤ褤ȤƤ롥ʲˡ2ĤɽǤ褦
| 1ɽ | ʷἰ | a | i | u | e | o | |||
| ka | ki | ku | ke | ko | kya | kyu | kyo | ||
| sa | si | su | se | so | sya | syu | syo | ||
| ta | ti | tu | te | to | tya | tyu | tyo | ||
| na | ni | nu | ne | no | nya | nyu | nyo | ||
| ˥ | ˥ | ˥ | |||||||
| ha | hi | hu | he | ho | hya | hyu | hyo | ||
| ҥ | ҥ | ҥ | |||||||
| ma | mi | mu | me | mo | mya | myu | myo | ||
| ߥ | ߥ | ߥ | |||||||
| ya | (i) | yu | (e) | yo | |||||
| ra | ri | ru | re | ro | rya | ryu | ryo | ||
| wa | (i) | (u) | (e) | (o) | |||||
| ga | gi | gu | ge | go | gya | gyu | gyo | ||
| za | zi | zu | ze | zo | zya | zyu | zyo | ||
| da | (zi) | (zu) | de | do | (zya) | (zyu) | (zyo) | ||
| ba | bi | bu | be | bo | bya | byu | byo | ||
| ӥ | ӥ | ӥ | |||||||
| pa | pi | pu | pe | po | pya | pyu | pyo | ||
| ԥ | ԥ | ԥ |
| 2ɽ | ɸ༰ˡҥإܥ | sha | shi | shu | sho | |
| tsu | ||||||
| cha | chi | chu | cho | |||
| fu | ||||||
| ja | ji | ju | jo | |||
| ܼ | di | du | dya | dyu | dyo | |
| ¥ | ¥ | ¥ | ||||
| kwa | ||||||
| gwa | ||||||
| wo | ||||||
#1888. ѸȸƤ֤ȤˤĤơ ([2014-06-28-1]) ˰³ (grammatical gender) ȤѸˤĤơεǻȤ Curzan ˤСѸ˾ǽѸ˵äѲϡʸˡ鼫ءפѲȤФиڤ뤬μ (natural gender) ȤѸϤޤ˥ʥǤϤʤȤȤϡľ˲᤹СλؼоݤʪŪȤȤˤʤ뤬ºݤˤѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹ̤ơˤϼҲŪ (social gender) ŤͿ졤δްդäѤƤΰ̣ǡʸˡˤ֤줿ѸϡʤɤǤϤʤҲŪɤ߹ޤ줿ạ́Ǥ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
Curzan (574) ϡεƧޤǡѸ "natural gender" ȸƤ³뤳ȤϲǽȻŦƤ롥
Nevalainen--Raumolin-Brunberg . . . refer to the English gender system as notional gender in an attempt to move away from the misconceptions bound up with the description natural gender. But it is possible to retain the description natural gender with the understanding that its definition rests not purely on biological sex but instead on social concepts of sex and gender, and the flexibility in reference that this system allows speakers is natural and highly patterned.
Curzan ΤθƤ³Ƥˤϰ⺮äƤΤǤϤʤäƤߤ뤬ˤ褳ϸˤεˤĤƹͤƤոǤϤ롥Ҳˤγ˴ؤԤи¸ߤƤ롥ϡҲοʹִѤѤθΰȤƤ gender ѤȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥 gender ѤŪȿǤ경˻ȡϸạ́졤֤ʤɤν˵ڤֹϤʸˡηϤȤƳΩ롥ʸˡηϤˤäΩȡȤμҲǤ߽ФΤǤ gender ѤޤäȤƤ⡤ˤʤ³뤫⤷ʤ
ѸǤϡȤƷκԤȤƷŪʷˤꡤĸŪ˰ѤǤʸˡηϤѸ˲Τľ夫顤Ƥӿ gender Ѥ¤ȯŸΥ뤬ФȤ⤤ΤǤϤʤʸˡηϤۤɤΰϤʤġε (personification) 㡤ạ́δްդ㡤ΰפʤɤСѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸˤҲŪʤӤӤޤƤ뤳ȤʬäƤ
ѸˤˤŤʸˡȡ줬ΤȤδ֤ˤϡƳ礭ʰ㤤ϤʤΤ⤷ʤʤȤȯŸΥץȤߤȡषƤΤ⤷ʤ
Curzan, Anne. "Gender Categories in Early English Grammars: Their Message in the Modern Grammarian." Gender in Grammar and Cognition. Ed. Barbara Unterbeck et al. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000. 561--76.
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