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2021-06-30 Wed

#4447. ѸˤǤޤΩʤɥĸ [german][germanic][borrowing][loan_word]

Ѹˤˤƹϥɥĸ (german) о줹뵡˾ʤϡ̣Ǥ϶ä٤Ȥ⤷ʤѸɥĸƱޥɤ°Ūˤ⥤ꥹȥɥĤϤۤɳ֤äƤ櫓ǤʤΤ顤äŪʸήäȤ⤪ʤΤǤϤʤȤǤ롥
ѸˤˤƥɥĸȤܿȤʤäƤΤϡäƤΤȤǤ롥Ѹȥɥĸδ֤ˤϡΤ˥ޥɤ֤ȤƤΡַطפ졤ֱƶطפäȤäƤ褤ʷȱƶζ̤ German Germanic ζ̤νˤĤƤϡ#369. ˤƶ ([2010-05-01-1])#4380. ѸΥ롼ĤϥƥǤɥĸǤʤ ([2021-04-24-1])#4411. German Germanic ΰ㤤 --- 䤳̾ ([2021-05-25-1]) 򻲾ȡ
嵭λǡܥ֥Ǥɥĸ¸ߴ#2164. ѸˤǤޤΩʤɥĸ줫μѡ ([2015-03-31-1])#2621. ɥĸαѸؤܳŪ׸19 ([2016-06-30-1])#150. ꥫѸؤΥɥĸι׸ ([2009-09-24-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ٤Ǥ롥
ϢѤƤ Hendriks ʸΥȥ "English in Contact: German and Dutch" ǤꡤGerman Dutch ΩäƤ櫓High German ΰϡ1/3ڡˤʤ1Τߡʲˤ٤ƤѤƤޤ٤ʬ̤Ǥ롥ʤHendriks (1660) κǽƤ̤ꡤ1117ޤǤθܿǤꡤ18ʹߤζḽˤϹθ鳰Ƥ뤳ȤդɬפǤ롥

4.3 Influence from High German
The 16th century is frequently noted as the starting point for lexical influence from High German (Serjeantson 1961: 179; Viereck 1993: 70; Nielsen 2005: 182). During this period, German miners were brought to England to develop the mineral resources industry; it has been suggested (Luu 2005: 31) that the necessary contacts required to recruit southern German miners were established in the late 15th/early 16th century in the commercial center of Antwerp. Some of the words having entered the language as a result of this connection are zinc, cobalt, shale, and quartz. Regarding German influence on English dialects, Wakelin (1977: 23) states: "There has been contact with Germany since the Middle Ages, but from the dialectal point of view it is not until the seventeenth century that there is much to note". Again, this is a reference to mineralogy. A detailed, OED-based study of High German lexical influence on English is Carr (1934). Briefly noting loans prior to 1600, the study focuses primarily on cultural loans in English from the 17th-19th centuries. The words identified are frequently technical scientific terms or are from other domains of influence such as religion, the military, philosophy and music.


16˥ɥĤιפۻѤ٤󥰥ɤˤäƤȤȡޤΤξȾεȥפˤǤƤȤȤϽΤä
ˤѸˤˤƤϡ塤¼ŪˤϸԤʤСɥĸϤޤȤ˸ƤʤȤäƤ褵

Hendriks, Jennifer. "English in Contact: German and Dutch." Chapter 105 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1659--70.

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2021-06-29 Tue

#4446. Ͻ줬Ѹ˵ڤܤðʳαƶ --- TH-stopping 3ñΥ [th][phonetics][dutch][flemish][low_german][contact][me_dialect][dialect_levelling][3sp][aave]

濴ȤϽαѸؤαƶˤĤơϢ#4444. Ѹĺ15 ([2021-06-27-1]) ȡ#4445. ʤѸˤˤϽ줫αƶᾮɾƤΤ ([2021-06-28-1]) Ǽ夲ƤϸðʳؤαƶˤĤ Hendriks λŦƤ2夲褦
ޤ1ܤϡѸFlemish üԤαƶˤꡤѸλ໤ [ð] бĺ [d] ֤줿ΤǤϤʤȤˤĤơνнǤ Samuels 򻲾Ȥ Hendriks (1668) ˤСѸ Kent, East Sussex, East Surrey ꡤ"the" de Ȥơthick dykke Ȥơ"this" dis ȤʸڤȤSamuels ˤС "TH-stopping" Ͼ嵭ϰ15ƬޤǤ˵äƤꡤߤǤؼ˸¤ΤΡθ̤ĤäƤȤ
2ܤϡTrudgill θΤ褦ˤʤä East Midland ˤ3ñΥǤ (cf. #2310. 3ñΥ ([2015-08-24-1])ˡTrudgill ϡϰDZѸϽ줬ܿưޤ¿Ͳʣ̡ǽŪ˿ʿDzߤȤˤ긽ߤ3ñΥ褦ȤƤ롥Hendriks (1668) ˤꡤεΥ˥奢󥹤⤦ǫɤäƤߤ褦

In an article first published in 1997, Trudgill (2002) seeks to understand why the present-tense, third person singular verb forms lack -s in the East Anglian dialects. Surviving evidence suggests that from the 11th to the 15th century, Est Anglian dialects had the original -th form, but by 1700, the zero form had become a typical feature of these dialects. Noting a number of zero forms in the early 17th letters of Katherine Paston, he situates the emergence of the zero forms in the 16th century. This time-frame corresponds to massive migration into East Anglia from the Low countries and France as a result of the Dutch Revolt in the southern Netherlands and civil wars in France. Trudgill concludes that the zero from is due to contact at a time when the East Anglian system itself was in flux and this is the key to his argument. There is evidence of variation between the native southern -th forms and the northern -s forms at the same time that this region experience[d] a massive influx of immigrants who would have found the typologically highly marked third person singular verb forms difficult to acquire. In this situation of dialect contact, Trudgill (2002: 185) asserts, "natural forms tend to win out over non-natural ones".


ä˸ԤΡ3ñΥ aave εˤƤ⸰ȤʤȥԥåǤꡤѸ˾夭ƽפǤ롥

Hendriks, Jennifer. "English in Contact: German and Dutch." Chapter 105 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1659--70.
Samuels, Michael L. "Kent and the Low countries: Some Linguistic Evidence." Edinburgh Studies in English and Scots. Ed. A. J. Aitken, Angus McIntosh, and Hermann Pálsson. London: Longman, 1971. 3--19.
Trudgill, Peter. "Third-Person Singular Zero: African-American English, Anglian Dialects and Spanish Persecution in the Low Countries." East Anglian English. Ed. Jacek Fisiak and Peter Trudgill. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2002. 179--86.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-11-09-1]

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2021-06-28 Mon

#4445. ʤѸˤˤϽ줫αƶᾮɾƤΤ [historiography][dutch][flemish][low_german][contact][loan_word][borrowing][purism][register][oed]

ε#4444. Ѹĺ15 ([2021-06-27-1]) Ǥ⿨줿褦ˡѸˤˤϽ줫αƶϲᾮɾƤ餤 (cf. #3435. ѸˤˤϽ줫αƶϲᾮɾƤ ([2018-09-22-1])ˡϱѸ˵Ҥ˴ؤ뾮ȹͤƤ뤬ʤäΤ
Hendriks (1660) ˤСᾮɾƤͳ1ĤȤơɽȤϽ줬ѸȶǤꡤġñθ츻꤬ǤŦƤ롥ѶŪ˥ͳǤȽǤʤ¤ꡤѸǤȤݼŪȽǤͥ褵Τ̵̤ȤѸˤϤޤäƱѸ¸ߤȤǤʾ塤ˤƶεŸ뤳Ȥ񤷤餫˱ѸȤϰۼθ츻ǤȽ䤹ե󥹸ʤơ٤ǤťΥɸˤ٤СϳΤǤ롥

[C]ontributions from the Scandinavian and French languages to the lexicon of English, for example, are discussed in terms of certainty, whereas contributions from the closely related varieties of "Low Dutch" or "Low German" are couched in terms of "probably" or "possibly" or are simply not discussed.


ʾ Hendriks ĴƤΤϡαѸˤɸŪͽطʤ˲ "purist language ideologies" (1659) Ǥ롥Hendriks ϤۤɲʪƤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤ̤ȤƤŪʱѸ˵ҤФ붯ǿȽȤʤäƤȤäƤ褤ܤ٤ͤȻפ
Hendriks ϵ2˹ʤäƤ롥1ĤϡOED ʸإƥнŤؤȽǤ롥OED ŪˡѸˤʣκ򤷤 "macaronic" ʥƥȤ򥽡ȤƽƤºݤˤϡΤ褦ʼŪǸŪʥƥȤޤ˥ʤɤοƳη󶡤Ƥ⤷ʤȤOED ˤǧʤäȤȤǤʤܲԻ3ǤˤƤϤDzȤȤ Hendriks (1669) ȤڤƤˡ
⤦1ĤϾ嵭ȤϢ뤬OED ϸɸѸϢʤѸѼˤƤƤʤäȤŦ줫μѸϡषɸѸ줫æ쥸㤨оʬ̾ʬ "macaronic" ʥ쥸ǤƤꤵ뤬OED ʤѸˤɸŪͽǤϡΤ褦ɸŪʥ쥸ϤޤȤ˰ƤʤäHendriks (1662) ۩

Non-literary sources such as macaronic business writings, however, may be more likely to reflect the vernacular of London than the more pure literary texts selected to compile the atlas. Given the literary emphasis in the OED and the LALME, the range of topics which appear in these sources may be considerably restricted. The consequence of this is that entire semantic fields --- such as those pertaining to industrial or commercial relations, that is, fields where the significant contribution of Low Dutch to the English lexicon would be observed --- remain undocumented.


ˡѸʹߤ˸¤СOED "Standard English" ʳΥڻ뤷ƤȤ¤Ŧʤ
פˡѸ줬¸ߴ򼨤ƤϤΥ쥸OED ɮƬȤɸŪե󥹤ΥˤϴޤޤƤʤäȤȤʤΤϡѸˤ historiography ˤܼŪȸ虜ʤ

Hendriks, Jennifer. "English in Contact: German and Dutch." Chapter 105 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1659--70.

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2021-06-27 Sun

#4444. Ѹĺ15 [dutch][flemish][low_german][contact][loan_word][borrowing]

ƤαѸ˳ǤϡDutch, Flemish, Afrikaans, Low German ʤɤ (the Low Countries) ν줫μѸˤĤơ¿εҤ롥ƥ졤ťΥɸ졤ե󥹸줫μѸ٤еϤƶ⤺äȾᡤޤǥޥŪʰ֤ŤˤȤɤޤ롥
Ȥ򺣤αѸ˸ǤϡΤ褦˲ᾮɾƤ¤ơϽȤθܿѶŪɾ褦ȤޤäƤƤ롥
ܥ֥ǤϡϢ뵭Ȥưʲ񤤤Ƥ

#126. 7ˤѸؤαƶӡ ([2009-08-31-1])
#140. եޥ줫Ѥؾ -kin ([2009-09-14-1])
#149. եޥȱѸˡ ([2009-09-23-1])
#2645. 줫Ѥ줿ߤΤñ ([2016-07-24-1])
#2646. Ѹ˴ؤס ([2016-07-25-1])
#3435. ѸˤˤϽ줫αƶϲᾮɾƤ ([2018-09-22-1])
#3436. 󥰥ɤӤȤܿˡ ([2018-09-23-1])

ϡOED ѤϽ줫μѸ"once-Dutch words" ȾΤƤˤĴ den Otter ˰͵򤷤 Hendriks (1667) ꡤ13--17˱ѸäƤѸΥץ򼨤

13th century:
   asquint, bouse, gewgaw, muster, pack, scour, scum, slight, slip, slop, welter, wiggle

14th century:
   bale, bundle, clamp, clock, fraught, grim, groove, keel, kit, mate, miller, north-north-east, north-north-west, rack, rover, school, scoop, slipper, slap, sled, spike, splint, splinter, tear, wainscot, wig, wind

15th century:
   brake, cabbage, cooper, cope, cramer, dapper, deck, excise, freight, gold, graft, hackle, hop, leak, lighter, luck, marline, mart, meerkat, misdeal, mud, nappy, pace, peg, pickle, pink, pip, rack, rumple, rutter, scout, scuttle, slip, sod, stripe, stuff, tattle, warble, whirl

16th century:
   aloof, anker, beleaguer, boor, boss, bumpkin, burgomaster, bush, cashier, clump, cramp, dike-grave, dock, dollar, domineer, drawl, ensconce, filibuster, flute, foist, forlorn hope, free-booter, frolic, gripe, gruff, jerkin, kermis, landscape, lazy, manikin, mesh, pad, pickle-herring, pram, push, rant, rash, reef, safflower, sconce, scone, scrabble, scrub, shoal, slap, snap, sniff, snuff, snuffle, span, spatter, stake, steady, stump, stutter, tattoo, uproar, wagon, wagoner, yacht

17th century:
   back, balk, beer, blaze, boom, brandy, clank, cruise, cruiser, decoy, drill, duck, easel, enlist, etch, furlogh, gas, gherkin, hovel, hustle, kill, kink, knapsack, masterpiece, morass, outlander, plug, polder, skate, sketch, slim, slurp, smack, smuggle, smuggler, snow, snuff, speck, still life, stink-pot, stoker, tea, trigger (den Otter 1990: 265--266)


den Otter Ĵˤȡޤä "once Dutch words" ο1254Ǥꡤαƶĺ15äȤ³ơ161817Ȥ֡ (Hendriks 1667) ѸȤ16--17γѸ줬¿ʥ᡼ºݤˤŪ̾졤ư졤ƻ¿ޤޤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥

den Otter, Alice G. "Lekker Scrabbling: Discovery and Exploration of Once-Dutch Words in the Online Oxford English Dictionary." English Studies 71.3 (1990): 261--71.
Hendriks, Jennifer. "English in Contact: German and Dutch." Chapter 105 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1659--70.

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2021-06-26 Sat

#4443. ˡưȯãȹʸʸˡ [auxiliary_verb][grammaticalisation][construction_grammar][preterite-present_verb][language_change][generative_grammar]

ѸˤѲθˤơˡư (modal verb) ȯãϡȤ櫓ʸˡ (generative_grammar) ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ʤɤŪʴܤƤűѸ䤽¸ߤư (preterite-present_verb) üȯѸˤʸˡ̤ƳƼˡư줬ޤ졤ƶḽѸ˻äƤưȾΤ֤³Ƥ롥ȤܤʸˡʹԤƤѸ줫ѸˤƤޤ©ĹѲǤ롥ܥ֥ǤϰʲεʤɤǼ夲Ƥ

#1670. ˡưȯã V-to-I movement ([2013-11-22-1])
#1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1])
#3528. ˡưŤͤ줿 ([2018-12-24-1])
#64. ˡưʤ³ȡ ([2009-07-01-1])

ǽ2Ĥεǿ줿褦ˡLightfoot ˤȡ¿ˡưû֤β16ޤǤ˴λƤȤθˤϰ롥Bergs (1640--41) ˤСषˡưϻŪ˥ХХȯãƤ뤷ˡưŪʽħƤ˳줿櫓ǤʤäȤΤ
Ū˥ХХȯãˤĤơBergs ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤롥ˡư첽ȤʤäΤϡ餯 motan, magan Ǥ롥ξԤȤˤǤ˸űѸˡưŪħ򼨤ƤˡѸ cunnan Ѹ willan ȯã should, would, could, might ơХХλˡư첽Ƥꡤб븽߷ᤫä⤢롥ˡˡư첽βˤƿη֤¸Ƥ "layering" λ¤ǧƤ롥Ĥޤꡤ٤ƤˤäʹԤƤȤ櫓
ޤˡưŪʽħƤ˳줿櫓ǤϤʤȤˤĤƤ⡤Bergs ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤롥ľŪʤȤˡưħϡȤˤΤǤϤʤޤǽ˳ƤΤǤ롥ޤŪ̵ޤȤħˤĤƤƱ͡
Bergs ϡˡư첽򡤹ʸʸˡ (construction_grammar) ȤߤǤȤ館褦ȤƤ롥ʸʸˡϡηϤʸ֤ΥͥåȥȤȤ館Ѳ򤽤ΥͥåȥѲȤȤ館롥äơˡư첽ȤѲϡưηǽŪħޤǤ¾ιʸȤδؤѲͥåȥȤؤԤʤäȤȤˤۤʤʤơΥͥåȥȤؤϡޤǽˤäȵäΤǤ⤯
ˡưȯãϡʸˡŵȤƾҲ𤵤뤳Ȥ¿ʸʸˡȤߤˤäƤϾ嵭Τ褦ʸ (constructionalization) ŵȤƲᤵΤǤ롥

Lightfoot, David W. "Cuing a New Grammar." Chapter 2 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 24--44.
Bergs, Alexander. "New Perspectives, Theories and Methods: Construction Grammar." Chapter 103 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1631--46.

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2021-06-25 Fri

#4442. 2ηƻӵ -er more [comparison][sobokunagimon][adjective][adverb][suffix][periphrasis][-ly]

ƻ졦 (comparison) ϡܥ֥Ǥ͡˰äƤѸǤΤ˷ΤĤƤʤӵ餬 -er ʶӡˤ more ʶӡˤȤŪطʤˤĤƤϡ#2346. more, most ѤӤȯã ([2015-09-29-1])#2347. Ӥȯãˤե󥹸졤ƥαƶˤĤơ ([2015-09-30-1])#3032. ӤȶӤζάˡ ([2017-08-15-1])#3617. -er/-est more/most --- ӵ顦Ǿκ ([2019-03-23-1])#3703.رѸ춵٤Ϣ4֤ʤӵκ -er more 2बΤס ([2019-06-17-1])#4234. ʤӵˤ -er ĤΤ more ĤΤȤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-11-29-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
ûˤ -er ĤĹˤ more ֤ȤΤ§Ǥ롥û⤢Ĺ⤢2ˤĤƤϡɤ줬㤷Ƥ줤꼰Ǥʤºݡʸˡ򤤤äƤߤȡñ줴ȤˤɤӵηΤ̤ʤΤˤĤƵҤ̯˰ۤʤΤǤ롥ϡҤȤޤ LGSWE 7.7.2 򻲾Ȥơ2ηƻˤĤƹͤƤߤ
2ηƻ줬ӵηѤ뤫ϡβŪ礭¸뤳ȤΤƤ롥-y ǽΤˤĤƤϡ-er ̤Τ褦󤲤ȡ

angry, bloody, busy, crazy, dirty, easy, empty, funny, gloomy, happy, healthy, heavy, hungry, lengthy, lucky, nasty, pretty, ready, sexy, silly, tidy, tiny


-y ǽƻȤȤǤС餫ƬĤ3ˤʤäƤ⡤ӵ -er Ȥ뷹 (ex. unhappier) Ѹˤδϡ250ǯۤˤϾۤʤäƤ餷Ȥܤͤ (cf. #3618. Johnson ˤӵ顦Ǿκε§ ([2019-03-24-1]))
-ly ǽƻɤ줬㤷褦ǡ㤨 early ӵ earlier ̤likely ˤĤƤ more likely Τ̤ۤǤ롥ۤɤ򼨤ȤƤϡ

costly, deadly, friendly, lively, lonely, lovely, lowly, ugly


ʤɤ󤲤롥Ʊɤ򼨤ΤȤơʲΤ褦˼岻ǽ2ηƻ󤲤Ƥ

mellow, narrow, shallow, yellow; bitter, clever, slender, tender; able, cruel, feeble, gentle, humble, little, noble, simple, subtle; sever, sincere; secure, obscure


ξηɤ򼨤ƤȤȤϡ¾ؤȾ괹ʤǤȤȡĤޤѲκǤ뤳Ȥʳξڤ櫓ǤϤʤʤȤ˼롥ξζ硦ʻ¸Ϥ줳1000ǯۤ³Ƥ櫓ޤ˷ʤ

Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-07-22-1] [2021-08-17-1]

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2021-06-24 Thu

#4441. ֻ̾ˤߤ [spelling][personal_name][onomastics][silent_letter][three-letter_rule][orthography]

ɸΰ̣ȤϡAnn Anne Smith Smythe Kid Kidd 󤲤а̾αñֻ§˾Ȥ餻;ʬȤߤʤʸֻ̾ˤФиȤݤ̾ (personal_name) ϡοʪΥǥƥƥ¸ߴ򼨤θǤǤꡤȤ櫓ФʤֻˤơФСפȤȤäƤԻ׵ĤϤʤCarney (454) ϡˤĤƼΤ褦˹ͻƤ롥

Personal names gain advantage by having a certain written bulk since a totem impresses partly by its size. Consequently, names which are phonetically quite short are often padded out with empty letters. The name /leg/ never seems to appear as *Leg --- the usual spelling is Legge. Here we see the two most common types of padding: <C>-doubling and a superfluous <-e> in a context where neither is warranted by modern spelling conventions. Such spellings were common in both names and non-names before conventions settled down in the eighteenth century, but archaism is not the only reason for their continued use in names. Since such spellings are most frequently found in monosyllables and since the unpadded spellings are much less common, their written bulk is obviously seen as an advantage. They also reinforce the initial capital letter as a marker of names and help them to stand out from the non-names in written text. In some cases the padding may help to distance the name from an unfortunate homophone, as in Thynne.


ֻˤϡ(1) ̾ݤŤ롤(2) ä1ο̾Ω롤(3) ̾Ʊȶ̤롤ȤäǽȤȤμˡȤƤϡҲ2Ų -e ղäŦƤ롥ʲ <t> 2Ų <-e> ղäˤĤơ̵ͭɤ򼨤򤤤Ĥ󤲤Ƥߤ褦 (Carney (454--57))

Abbot(t), Arnot(t), Barnet(t), Barrat(t), Basset(t), Becket(t), Bennet(t), Calcot(t), Elliot(t), Garnet(t), Garret(t), Nesbit(t), Plunket(t), Prescot(t), Wilmot(t), Wyat(t)


Ann(e), Ask(e), Beck(e), Bewick(e), Brook(e), Cook(e), Crook(e), Cross(e), Dunn(e), Esmond(e), Fagg(e), Fisk(e), Foot(e), Glynn(e), Goff(e), Good(e), Gwynn(e), Harding(e), Hardwick(e), Holbrook(e), Hook(e), Keating(e), Lock(e), Plumb(e), Webb(e), Wolf(e), Wynn(e)


Carney (457) ϡθݤ̾ˤ¾Ρ4ʸ§ ("a minimum four-letter rule") ȽҤ٤Ƥ궽̣󤳤ϰ̸ˡˤ#2235. 3ʸ§ ([2015-06-10-1]) ⤸äΤǤ롥

Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.

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2021-06-23 Wed

#4440. 1418ޤǡɸಽĹ [standardisation][dialect_contact][dialect_mixture][dialect_levelling][emode]

ѸˤǤϡѸɸಽĹ֤ˤ錄äȿʹԤȤΤƤ롥ĹɸಽβλϤޤȽɤ֤ԥݥȤǻŦ뤳Ȥ񤷤14Ⱦ Chaucer λ˨꤬ߤ졤18εϼλˤ褽뤲줿ȤƤ
ɸಽȤϡδ餤С¿ȤȤǤ롥ֻǤСƱñФʣ֤֤ͣۤɸŪȤȤ14Ⱦ18ޤDZѸ줬ɸಽӾˤäȤȤϡʤλˤ¿쾯ʤ¿äȤȤǤ롥
Trudgill (2047--48) ѸɸಽӾˤߤ줿Ū¿ˤĤơ̾̾ʸԤ꼡Τ褦ȯ򼡡ȰѤƤ롥

"the precise regional dialect constituents of London English were not finally fixed in their present proportion and distribution during the 15th century, nor indeed for some time after the beginning of the following century" (Wyld)
"in London circles during the 16 c and 17 c many different usages [...] were jostled together" (Strang)
"the modern standard has a heterogeneous dialect base" (Lass)
"coexisting subsystems" (Samuels)
"rival pronunciations" (Wells)
"it is tempting to ask what dialects were not present in this Londonish-East Midlandish-Northernish-Southernish 'single ancestor' of Standard English" (Hope)

Ǥϡ¿ϲͳ褹Τ͡Trudgill ˤС (dialect_mixture) ȤΤȤǤ롥Ĺ֡󥰥ڤɥ¿οܽ͡³ƤɥޤäͤϤषɤǤꡤˤĤƸХɥϤޤΤĤܤäΤǤ롥Τ褦ʾǤϡκ礬֤Ǥꡤʿ (dialect_levelling) ˤ֤פȤȤ
ĹɸಽϡḽѸˤŪԵ§ȵ§ΤޤͤƤ褦˻פ롥ѸΤʬ§Ūǡ̤ʬԵ§ŪʤΤϡ¿嵭λ˵ȤäƤ褤

Trudgill, Peter. "Varieties of English: Dialect Contact." Chapter 130 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2044--59.

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2021-06-22 Tue

#4439. űѸϺȤƻϤޤä [dialectology][dialect][oe_dialect][anglo-saxon][dialect_contact][dialect_mixture][numeral][superlative][be][suppletion]

ŪʱѸ˵ҤˤȡűѸϡ5ȾФ˥󥰥͡͡塼ȿͤʤޥζƽ̱²ߤ˾ۤʤäȤƥ֥ƥϤäƤȤϤޤ롥ΡֱѸפϡ̱²ȤνҤäΤΤ򤷤Ƥ褤θ塤űѸ˳Ϥ줾Ϥ˺դĤȯỴ̈Ǥϸˤޤ³󥰥ɽۤ
嵭θϡ5Ⱦа衤ߤˡʤޤäȤϤ鷺ȤˤۤɸäƤʤäȤȤƤ롥#2868. ˤƸűѸޤ줿 ([2017-03-04-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡűѸϤ⤽ܿ (dialect_contact) (dialect_mixture) λʪǤϤʤȤ⤢롥8θűѸˤϤޤʤθŪ¿ѻ뤬ϸŤ̤ܿƿؤޤѤݤŵŪˤߤ븽ݤȤΤǤϤʤ
Trudgill (2045--46) Nielsen 򻲾ȤĤġ˵ȤߤűѸθŪ¿ζ3󤲤Ƥ롥

1) Old English had a remarkable number of different, alternative forms corresponding to Modern English 'first', and, crucially, more than any other continental Germanic language. This variability, moreover, would appear to be linked, although in some way that is not entirely clear, to variability and differentiation on the European mainland: ærest (cf. Old High German eristo); forma (cf. Old Frisian forma); formest (cf. Gothic frumists); and fyrst (cf. Old Norse fyrst).
2) Similarly, OE had two different paradigms for the present tense of the verb to be, one derived from Indo-European *-es- and apparently related to Old Norse and Gothic; and the other deriving from Indo-European *bheu and relating to Old Saxon and Old High German. The relevant singular forms in Table 130.1

Table 130.1: Singular forms of the present tense of the verb to be (Nielsen 1998: 80)
 GothicOld NorseOld English IOld English IIOld SaxonOld High German
1SGimemeombeombiumbim
2SGiseseartbistbistbist
3SGistesisbiðis(t)ist


3) Old English also exhibited variability, in all regions, in the form of the interrogative pronoun meaning 'which of two'. This alternated between hwæðer which relates to Gothic hvaóar and W. Norse hvaðarr, on the other hand, and hweder which corresponds to O. Saxon hweðar, on the other.


嵭 1) "first" ηŪ¿ˤĤƤϡѸǤϤ뤬#1307. most mest ([2012-11-24-1]) ط롥2) be ư줬Ū佼ˡ (suppletion) ˤĤƤϡεˤ뤫⤷ʤȤƶϱԤ̤佼ˡλͻݤΥҥȤˤʤ
űѸˤϡʸŪˤʾ̤ʤȤͳѶŪˤΤ񤷤ͿΤΤȤƼƤޤȤ¿ʸΩĻˡפΤۤ¿ܿ礬äǽꤷƤߤȡʻƤ褦˻פ롥
ܿΰŪʲϡ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) ɤ

Trudgill, Peter. "Varieties of English: Dialect Contact." Chapter 130 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2044--59.
Nielsen, Hans Frede. The Continental Backgrounds of English and its Insular Development until 1154. Odense: Odense UP, 1998.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-07-30-1]

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2021-06-21 Mon

#4438. űѸ첻η [oe][vowel][monophthong][diphthong][phonetics][phonology][phoneme]

űѸ첻ʣηϤʤƤû첻Ĺ첻û2첻Ĺ2첻η󤬤ꡤűѸȾλˤäƤˤäƤ첻μȿϰۤʤäƤᡤűѸ첻ʲǡ˰ȤǤ롥ޤĹ2첻ηˤäɤäơ#3955. űѸ "digraph controversy" ([2020-02-24-1])#3964. űѸ "digraph controversy" (2) ([2020-03-04-1]) Ǥߤ褦ʷ㤷⤢ꡤǤϤʤ
Ǥ Prins (51--52) ˰͵򤷤ơűѸθȥ첻ηϤ򼨤Ȥˤ롥

Short Vowels
iüu
eö ( e )o
æ, a
Long Vowels
i:ü:u:
e:ö: ( e: )o:
æ:
ɑ:
Short Diphthongs
ie( i )
eo
ea
Long Diphthongs
i:e( ü )
e:o
e:a


Ƥ٤ϡ

(1) û첻 ö Ĺ첻 ö ϡ߿
(2) û첻 æ a Ʊ첻Ǥΰְ۲Ĺ첻 æ: ɑ: ϰۤʤ벻ǤǤ
(3) û2첻 ie ϡ i Ѳ
(4) Ĺ2첻 i:e ϡ ü: Ѳ

Ȥʤ롥
ƼѲ첻ηϤˤƷ󤴤Ȥ˲Ǥȡû첻6ǡĹ첻7ǡû2첻2ǡĹ2첻2ǤȤʤꡤʤѤäƤ17Ĥ첻ǤäȤˤʤ롥Ѹ첻Ǥ20ĤۤɤʣűѸ餱Ƥʤcf. #1021. ѸܸβǤμȿ ([2012-02-12-1])#1601. Ѹܸ첻ΰӡ ([2013-09-14-1])ˡѸǤʣ¤줿ΤΤȤƤߤˤ̤ƱѸ첻ηϤϹäƤȤäƤ褤

Prins, A. A. A History of English Phonemes. 2nd ed. Leiden: Leiden UP, 1974.

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2021-06-20 Sun

#4437. ̾ʬפʤʣƻ [adjective][participle][compound][word_formation][syntax][semantics][morphology]

ɸ breath-taking man-made तʣƻؤ2ǤȤƸʬȤN + V-ing פȲʬȤN + V-ed פ2ब롥̾ʬˤʤäƤưȤ̣ŪطˤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤΤ (100--01) 򻲾ȤơηˤĤ󤲤롥碌ơOED ǯդ

ΡN + V-ing

(1) N V ŪȤʤ
breath-taking (1840), man-eating (1607), fact-finding (1833), habit-forming (1899), time-consuming (1600), English-speaking (1798); self-defeating (1812), self-sacrificing (1654), self-respecting (1597)

(2) N ɽ̲ƤʤֻŪȤʤʰʲǤϴͿֻ䤦
ocean-going [across] (1854), fist-fighting [with] (1950), law-abiding [by] (1839)

ΡN + V-ed

(3) "V-ed by [at, in, with] N" ȥѥե졼ǤطʰʲǤϴͿֻ䤦
moth-eaten [by] (c1400), self-taught [by] (1586), man-made [by] (1845), home-made [at] (1547), country-bred [in] (1620), star-spangled [with] (1600)

įƤߤȡʣƻǤȤʤ̾ưʬˤŪطϡˤ¿ͤǤ뤳Ȥʬ롥СʣƻϡŪŸ줿ե졼٤ȡǴ֤ΰ̣طŪǤʤȤ⤤褦󡤤Τ褦¿ˤĤķȤƤΥѥȤƤ뤳Ȥʣƻ¸߰յʤΤȤϻפ
夲פʣƻŪȯ˴ؤƤϡ嵭νǯį¤ꡤѸΤΤۤȤɤǤ롥ᤤѸѤƤϤɤΤõƤߤʤä

ط١ҡ1988ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2021-06-19 Sat

#4436. ƻΥץȥ [comparison][adjective][adverb][category][prototype][pos][comparison]

ʻ (part of speech = pos) ȤΤϡǤ褯ΤƤʸˡ (category) 1ĤǤ롥ƤθѸʤʸˡѸʤϡʸˡƤˤĤ줿٥Ǥ롥졤ʡӡԡ˲ĻʤɤѸ줬ФƤ顤ʸˡƤˤĤƸäƤΤȹͤƤ褤
ѸηƻʤˤȤʻˤĤƹͤ硤 (comparison) ȤʸˡƤ1ĤȤʤ롥ܸʤɤǤϡӡפʸˡƤȤ̰봷Ϥʤʽ֤פˡ1ĤȤ٤²ˤƤϸηϤ˿ޤ줿ʸˡƤȤơ̻뤵뤳ȤˤʤäƤ롥ϤޤˤδФĤƤʤΤѸؤˤȤʸˡƤ̻ŪˤⶦŪˤ׻뤵ƤȤϳΤǤ롥
ϤޤäƷƻʤˤʸˡƤȤȤ줬ƻǤ뤫Ȥäơɬ⤳ƤͿ櫓ǤϤʤ˷ƻ餷ƻӤƤŬ礹뤬ۤɷƻ餷ʤƻӤȤƤʤդ˸Сƻ夲ȤӤƤŬ礹뤫ɤǡƻ餷ƻ줫Ǥʤƻ줫Ƚ롥ϡȤʤƻ˴ؤץȥ (prototype) Ǥ롥
Crystal (92) ƻΥץȥפˤĤʬ䤹ͿƤƤ롥

   The movement from a central core of stable grammatical behaviour to a more irregular periphery has been called gradience. Adjectives display this phenomenon very clearly. Five main criteria are usually used to identify the central class of English adjectives:

(A) they occur after forms of to be, e.g. he's sad;
(B) they occur after articles and before nouns, e.g. the big car;
(C) they occur after very, e.g. very nice;
(D) they occur in the comparative or superlative form e.g. sadder/saddest, more/most impressive; and
(E) they occur before -ly to form adverbs, e.g. quickly.

We can now use these criteria to test how much like an adjective a word is. In the matrix below, candidate words are listed on the left, and the five criteria are along the top. If a word meets a criterion, it is given a +; sad, for example, is clearly an adjective (he's sad, the sad girl, very sad, sadder/saddest, sadly). If a word fails the criterion, it is given a - (as in the case of want, which is nothing like an adjective: *he's want, *the want girl, *very want, *wanter/wantest, *wantly).

 ABCDE
happy+++++
old++++-
top+++--
two++---
asleep+----
want-----


The pattern in the diagram is of course wholly artificial because it depends on the way in which the criteria are placed in sequence; but it does help to show the gradual nature of the changes as one moves away from the central class, represented by happy. Some adjectives, it seems, are more adjective-like than others.


ƻȤʸˡƤˤĤơäˤӤȤʸˡƤˤĤƤϡʲε򻲾ȡ

#3533. ̾ -- ƻ -- ưϢ³Ʋ ([2018-12-29-1])
#3835. ƻʤɤΡӡפֵפȤƤˤĤơ ([2019-10-27-1])
#3843. ʤƻ졦Ρָפ "positive degree" ȸƤФΤ ([2019-11-04-1])
#3844. ӵ4ˡ ([2019-11-05-1])

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: CUP, 1995. 2nd ed. 2003. 3rd ed. 2019.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-08-06-1] [2022-07-25-1]

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2021-06-18 Fri

#4435. ѲŪŤ˴ؤ [wave_theory][geography][geolinguistics][sociolinguistics]

ε#4434. ѲŪŤ˴ؤ ([2021-06-17-1]) ǡ͡ʥǥߤƤ¸νԤȽƤԤؼԤ Gregory 롥ʲGregory ȽƤˤĤơBritain (2037--39) 𤷤ƤǤϤ뤬Ҳ𤷥Ȥ
Gregory ȽϡüŪˤСҲʽġ˴֤θήΤεθƤʤȤȤѲŤˤĤƤСȾˤ褽ˤ衤Ū׿Ѥ뤳ȤʤŪ˼ưŪ˹äƤη֤ΤꤵƤ롥Ǥϡ(1) Ū׿ΤΤŤƤǷ䵡ǽѲƤǽˤĤƹθƤ餺(2) ҲʽġˤռŪ˼롤뤤ϵȤäּŪפγǰ礱Ƥꡤ(3) ˡܿεˤ͡ʥפˤ⤫餺֤Ȥñ1Ĥε뤷ȤƤʤפˡܿ (contact) ξ̤˴ؤ뤭٤ʹͻʤƤʤȤ櫓
ä (2) λŦˤĤơGregory (1985: 322--23) μ1Ѥ褦

In even the most developed version [of Hägerstrand's diffusion theory --- DB] it is axiomatic that 'resistance levels' will eventually diminish, and these are supposed to be a function of insufficient information --- of ignorance --- rather than of conscious collective action. There is a strong presumption that innovations are pro bono publico, therefore, and that their adoption is as uncontentious as it is unproblematic. (qtd. in Britain (2037))


ε鶯۵ΤϡָѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤפȤѲѤǤ롥ѲŪŤƤɽ⡤Ū˰ۤʤüԡʽġˤθѲռŪ˼Ƥɽۤդ路ϤοǤϤʤüԤǤ롥ϡüԤδ餬ߤǤϤʤФʤʤΤ褦ʵȤƲǤ롥
Britain (2039) ϡGregory ε¸ˤĤƼΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥

In general, then, the weaknesses of contemporary spatial diffusion models can be seen to result from their failure to adopt a richly socialized and interactional perspective on the spaces across which features diffuse. Society in diffusion models, Gregory (1985: 328--329) argues, needs to be conceived as a "multidimensional structure and not 'squashed into a flat surface, pock-marked only by the space-time incidence of events'".


ѲŤθ⡤꤬ѤߤΤ褦
ʤǿ줿ָѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤפȤѲѤˤĤƤϡʲε򻲾Ȥ줿

#1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1])
#2139. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ (2) ([2015-03-06-1])
#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤ󤸤ѡ ([2012-03-31-1])
#3367. ࡤѲ --- Ҳؤ3Ĥ ([2018-07-16-1])
#1502. Ⱦʤ̼ҳȻ ([2013-06-07-1])

Britain, David. "Varieties of English: Diffusion." Chapter 129 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2031--43.
Gregory, Derek. "Suspended Animation: The Stasis of Diffusion Theory." Social Relations and Spatial Structures. Ed. Derek Gregory and John Urry. London: Macmillan, 1985. 296--336.
Gregory, Derek. "Diffusion." The Dictionary of Human Geography. 4th ed. Ed. Ron Johnston, Derek Gregory, Geraldine Pratt, and Michael Watts. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000. 175--78.
Hägerstrand, Torsten. "Aspects of the Spatial Structure of Social Communication and the Diffusion of Information." Papers and Proceedings of the Regional Science Association 16 (1966): 27--42.

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2021-06-17 Thu

#4434. ѲŪŤ˴ؤ [wave_theory][geography][geolinguistics][sociolinguistics][history_of_linguistics]

ѲŪˤɤΤ褦ŤΤ (linguistic geography or geolinguistics) Ȥơ͡⤬ƤǤŤǤ褯ΤƤΤȾ (the wave theory; Wellentheorie) Ѳ濴Ϥ顤Ʊ߾ȤΤ褦˹äƤȤΤܸ츦ˤơפȤΤΤ⡤ΰȹͤƤ褤Ϣơ#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1]) #1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1]) #1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1]) wave_theory γƵ򻲾ȡ
ȾԻԳؤ͸ϤȤѥ᡼Ȥ߹ "Urban Hierarchy Model" 뤤 "cascade diffusion" ȾΤ⤢ (Britain 2035) ԻԤǻϤޤäѲԻԡƾԻԡ¼ļˤؤȡءϤ˱äŤƤȤΤ
"Urban Hierarchy Model" αĹ "gravity model" Ȥ⤬롥ԻԴ֤Ūʱƶطθǥcf. #2170. gravity model ([2015-04-06-1])ˡѲԻԤ̤ԻԤؤȥפʤŤƤͻҤ顤䤬פȸƤǤΤˤᤤcf.#2034. Ⱦʤ ([2014-11-21-1])#2040. ([2014-11-27-1]
ˤ1ѼȤ "Cultural Hearth model" (Britain 2036) ȤΤ⤢롥ԻԤ̤ԻԤŤ᤯ޤԻԼ˹äƤȤ㤬𤵤Ƥ롥#2037. ׿Ťȸ֡ ([2014-11-24-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ʤɤ⡤˶ᤤ⤷ʤ
ƤѲŤԻԤļˤؤȤĤΤǧƤ뤬դļˤԻԤŤ륿פλǧƤ롥 "counterhierarchical diffusion" ȸƤФ (Britain 2037) Ϣơ#2171. gravity model θ³ ([2015-04-07-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
ñȾ嵭νϡ줾֤ۤʤäƤ뤬褽ŪΥԻԳء͸ϤʤɤΥѥ᡼ꤷƤǤ϶̤Ƥ롥ѥ᡼μ䤷ƿʥǥ󼨤ƤȤǽ⤷ʤΤ褦ʥѥ᡼«ܼϲʤΤˤĤơؤͼԤǤ Hägerstrand "the diffusion of innovation is by definition a function of communication" (27) ȳˤƤ롥ʣΥѥ᡼ñ "communication" ˤޤȤᤢȤФʤΤ٤ƤθѲŤ1ĤΥǥ褦ȤƤ̵ȤȤʬ䤹Ҥ٤⤤ȻפΰŪʷϸФȤƤ⡤ŤθġλȼΤΤǤꡤäȼꤵ줿ѥ᡼٤ΤʤΤ

Britain, David. "Varieties of English: Diffusion." Chapter 129 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2031--43.
Hägerstrand, Torsten. "Aspects of the Spatial Structure of Social Communication and the Diffusion of Information." Papers and Proceedings of the Regional Science Association 16 (1966): 27--42.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-06-18-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2021-06-16 Wed

#4433. J. Milroy Ρּ夤嫡 W. Labov Ρֶ嫡 [social_network][weakly_tied][language_change][sociolinguistics]

Ҳؤ social_network ˤС뽸Ĥ˶ǤˤȤ߹ޤƤ餺¾Ĥȼ夯ӤĤƤ (weakly_tied) ĿͤŪ׿ȻΤ˽פ̤ȤJames Milroy θˤäƹΤ褦ˤʤäǤꡤܥ֥Ǥ#882. Belfast νŹ ([2011-09-26-1])#1179. ťΥɸȤܿȡּ夤嫡ס ([2012-07-19-1])#1352. ߥ˥̩٤̻֡ ([2013-01-08-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
ˤĤơ⤦ܤ褦«θǤͥåȥϡ⤿餵׿μƤݼŪʷ򼨤Τ褦ʥͥåȥȼ夤ĤʤĤˤʤĿͤϡγ׿Ƥ䤹Υͥåȥˤγ׿߹ޤƤˤʤȤƶ̤θ򤹤Сּ夤嫡פħŤĿͤϡΡֶ嫡פħŤġΥͥåȥ֤ζϤ餸뤳ȤȤȤּ夤嫡פĸĿͤ˳׿ζϤ˹׸ȤȤǤϤʤ׿ζϤʤƤΤǤСˤΤ褦ʸĿͤؤäƤϤȤ (Milroy 176--79)
ǡWilliam Labov (351, 360, 364) ϡФƿøΩΩäƤ롥Ū׿ȻΤϡˤ⳰ˤֶ嫡פäƤƳԤǤȤ⳰ҲŪ˰ܤֻ֤פȤʤƳԤ׿γȻ˹׸ФơMilroy Labov ꤹ褦ˤäƤ⳰ˤäƤ濴ŪʻƳԤʤ¸ߤʤȿƤ롥
ºݤΤȤơٻ㤬ĤäƤꡤɤ餬ŪȤȤǤϤʤǤ롥Britain (2034) ϡRaumolin-Brunberg (2006) 򻲾Ȥʤ顤ξȤ븫Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥

[D]rawing on evidence from the Helsinki Corpus of Early English Correspondence, Raumolin-Brunberg (2006) was able to suggest that both the Labovian and Milroyian approaches to finding the social locus of the diffusers of change may be accurate, sometimes. For a number of different features, she examined the rates of change at different stages of progress, and was, thereby, able to shed light on the strength of innovators' network ties at those different stages. When changes were in their infancy, she found that it was those individuals who were highly mobile and who had social profiles characterized by many weak social networks that were leading the change. When the changes were somewhat more advanced, however, it was individuals who were influential central "pillars" of their communities, with strong multiplex social ties, that were leading. She was able to conclude, therefore, that the two positions are perhaps not mutually exclusive, but simply reflect the position at different points along the life-cycle of a change.


ޤBritain (2035) ϡξƱդƤ1ĤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥Ѳ꡼ɤΤϡۤɤγ ("the upper working and lower middle classes") ǤȤȤ (cf. #1371. New York City ˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-27-1]))
̤򤬿ޤäƤ봶롥

Milroy, James. Linguistic Variation and Change: On the Historical Sociolinguistics of English. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.
Labov, William. Principles of Linguistic Change: Social Factors. Oxford: Blackwell, 2001.
Raumolin-Brunberg, Helena. "Leaders of Linguistic Change in Early Modern England." Corpus-Based Studies of Diachronic English Ed. Roberta Facchinetti and Matti Rissanen. Bern: Peter Lang, 115--34.
Britain, David. "Varieties of English: Diffusion." Chapter 129 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2031--43.

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2021-06-15 Tue

#4432. δñѸ in English٤Ϣ4֤ʤʸ do Ρ [notice][sobokunagimon][rensai][auxiliary_verb][do-periphrasis][syntax][word_order]

NHK饸ֺ¡δñѸ in EnglishפΥƥȤˤơֱѸΥܥʵפϢܤƤޤ7ΥƥȤȯޤ4Ȥʤ뺣ϡ֤ʤʸ do ΡפǤ

δñѸ in English2021ǯ7



be ư줪ӽưѤʸϡʸΤ˼ȤΡʽưҤä֤ Are you Japanese? Ȥ Can you cook? ȤФ褤ΤǤ¾ΰưѤʸξˤ do ʤ뤤Ŭ does, didˤͩΤȤޤ˸ޤѸؼԤǤСϲʤΤȸʤȤǤ͡
äȤˡŤϰư⡤ȤҤä֤Ȥˤ굿ʸäƤΤǤĤޤ Do you speak English? ǤϤʤ Speak you English? ä櫓Ǥưμˤ餺1ĤΥ롼ǰӤƤΤạ̇̄ǴñäȤˤʤޤȤ16ʹߡѸˡư˴ؤƤ do ѤȤ䤳ˡޤäƤޤʤΤ褦ݤȤΤϢܵǤϤޤ
ܥ֥ǤϢ񤤤ƤޤʲεˤŪˤ do-periphrasis εɤߤ

#486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1])
#491. Stuart ī˿षʿʸˤ뱪Ū do ([2010-08-31-1])

Referrer (Inside): [2022-06-14-1]

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2021-06-14 Mon

#4431. cockney ˤߤִ + ĺ + 첻ǻϤޤ [article][glottal_stop][phonetics][cockney][euphony]

괧ˤ괧ˤ衤첻֤ˤäƤϡ̾ [ə], [ðə] ǤϤʤ [ən], [ði] ȯΤŪȤ롥ºݤˤϡ#907. 첻 the εŪȯ ([2011-10-21-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤɬ⵬̤ȯԤʤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤŪʷȤǧ뤳Ȥϻ¤Ǥ롥ϢŪаޤŪ¦̤ϡʲεǼ夲Ƥ

#831. Why "an apple"? ([2011-08-06-1])
#906. the ΰۤʤȯ ([2011-10-20-1])
#907. 첻 the εŪȯ ([2011-10-21-1])
#2236. 첻 the ȯˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2015-06-11-1])
#2814. 첻Ϣ³ĺ ([2017-01-09-1])

Ȥ櫓Ǹε#2814. 첻Ϣ³ĺ ([2017-01-09-1]) ܤƤ餤ε#4430. cockney θߡ ([2021-06-13-1]) ǰѡȤ Fox cockney ȯħ1ĤȤơִ + ĺ + 첻ǻϤޤפ夲Ƥ롥첻Ϣ³򤹤뤿ĺȤ㤬cockney ˤäȤˤʤ롥⡤ŪǶγ׿ȤΤǡޤޤ⤷
cockney μԤ¿ϡ⤽嵭δȯ˴ؤ뵬Ūʶ̤Ƥ餺첻Ǥ [ə], [ðə] ѤȤ첻Ǥ첻Ϣ³ (hiatus) 򤱤褦ˡĺ [ʔ] 򶴤߹෹ߤȤFox (2025) Ѥ롥

In an investigation of young speakers of Bangladeshi and white British origin, Fox . . . found high frequency of the use of a [ə] and the [ðə] before vowel-initial words among Bangladeshi male adolescents in Tower Hamlets, London, and to a lesser extent in the speech of their white Anglo male peers. All speakers used glottal stop to resolve hiatus in the V#V context. Multi-ethnic friendship networks were shown to play a key role in the diffusion of these features.


Ū˽ʬ⤷˼ҲŪˤͻǤȤȤǥƥ󥰤

Fox, Sue. "Varieties of English: Cockney." Chapter 128 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2013--31.

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2021-06-13 Sun

#4430. cockney θ [cockney][h][variety][sociolinguistics]

cockney ϡɥβĮ East End ˽ϫƯԳ¯ŪʱѸѼȤΤƤ뤬ۤɥƥ쥪פȤƤߤƤѸѼϤʤѸ³Ƥץƥ쥪פǤcf. #1458. cockney ([2013-04-24-1]
ŪˤϡɸѸӤ͡ʺۤߤ롥Fox (2016--29) ˵äƤĤ󤲤Ƥߤ褦

happy θ첻 [ɪ] ǤϤʤ [i] ȯ롤 "happy tensing"
ĺ /p, t, k/ ĺ [ʔ] ȯ
໤ /θ/, /ð/ 줾쿰໤ /f/, /v/ ȯ롤 "th-fronting"
/h/ ȯʤ h-dropping (cf. #3936. h-dropping ȽȥꥷѸ ([2020-02-05-1]))
be have ȤƤ ain't λ
She can't say nothing. Τ褦¿
ղõʸѤ innit (< isn't it) λ
Cockney rhyming slang λ (cf. #1459. Cockney rhyming slang ([2013-04-25-1]))

θħϳΤ˸ߤ cockney ˤǧ졤¤餫Υ줿ƥ쥪פȤ櫓ǤϤʤcockney üԡפǧ͡㤨 Cockney rhyming slang ѤƤ뤫ȤСϼ֤餫ΥƤ롥֤εҤ̩ˤʤƤʤȤƥ쥪פ¸³ƤΤ
cockney üԤʬۤˤĤƤ⡤ŪʸˤϾνɬפȤʤäƤƤ褦Fox (2015) ۩

Cockney is therefore no longer confined to the traditional dialect area with which it has been associated but has come to represent the working class dialect of a much wider geographical southeastern region of England. It is probably also accurate to say that Cockney has become synonymous with white working class speakers and is not generally a term applied to speakers of minority ethnic backgrounds even if they have been born within the traditional Cockney area.


Fox cockney θߤ˴ؤϡʤˤפ롥ʲ˰Ѥ빼 (2013) ɤǤ⡤в cockney 򤹤뤳ȤǤ

There is no homogeneous speech form to which Cockney refers. There have always been slight regional differences as well as specific local variants used by some speakers and of course there have also always been social and stylistic differences among individuals. Nevertheless, Cockney is a term which has a long history and, even if its application has been rather vague, has traditionally been associated with the speech of the lower social groups in London, particularly in the "East End". However, like any variety, it has been subject to change over time and recent sociolinguistic research shows that socio-economic and demographic changes to the area may render the term Cockney irrelevant to the majority of people now living in the traditional homeland of the variety. This chapter will give an overview of the traditional aspects of the London dialect while at the same time taking into account some of the recent changes described as Multicultural London English.


Fox, Sue. "Varieties of English: Cockney." Chapter 128 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2013--31.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-06-14-1]

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2021-06-12 Sat

#4429. third d fourth th δط [indo-european][germanic][numeral][grimms_law][verners_law][suffix][metathesis]

62ꡤۿץåȥե Voicy ˤֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸ꤹͥ򥪡ץ󤷤Ƥޤ10ʬαѸˤۿƤޤϡthird three + the ѷʤΤǽ൬§ŪפȤ夲ޤcf. #92. third βžϤĵä ([2009-07-28-1])#93. third βžϤĵä (2) ([2009-07-29-1])#60. ž ( metathesis ) ([2009-06-27-1])ˡˤĤŪ­äȻפޤ



third -d fourth ʤ4ʾν˸ -th ȵŪƱʪǤꡤ줬ѷΤǤȤݤäޤ绨Ĥˤо嵭̤򤷤ƤƤ褤ΤǤ̩˵Фʤ˹ä𤬤ޤ
²νθˤϤĤμबꡤѸ -th ϢʤͣΤΤǤϤޤǤ3νˤĤƤСƷ줿֤ȤƤϡ-th Ϣʤޤ *tri-to- ⤢С̤ *triy-o Ȥ֤⤢ޤˤʣʺȹͤ *t(e)r(e)tiyo- ⤢ޤκǸΤΤѸ third (< OE þridda) Ϥ뤳Ȥˤʤޤäơthird d -th εǤ *-to- ľϤδطˤϤʤޤǡֺפͳƤδŪʴطȤΤΤʤȤǤŵȤơMallory and Adams (311) ѤƤޤ

The number 'three', *tréyes (neuter: triha), is also marked by different forms for the different genders and was declined as an -i-stem plural (e.g. OIr trī, Lat trēs, NE three, Lith trỹs, OCS trije [m.], tri [f./nt.], Alb tre [m.], tri [f.], Grk treîs, Arm erek ̔, Hit tēri-, Av θrayō [m./f.], θri [nt.], Skr tráyas [m./f.], trī [nt.], Toch B trai [m.], tarya ([f.]). In some languages we have reflections of a very unusual feminine form, *t(r)is(o)res, i.e. OIr teōir, Av tišrō, Skt tisrás. The underlying derivation of *tréyes is generally sought in either *ter 'further', i.e. the number beyond 'two', or from a *ter- 'middle, top, protruding', i.e. the middle finger, assuming one counted on one's fingers in Proto-Indo-European. Again, the probability that either suggestion is correct is very low. The ordinal number is indicated by a variety of forms similar to *triy-o (e.g. Arm eri 'third', Hit teriyan 'third', tariyanalli- '± third officer'), or *tri-to- (e.g. Alb tretê, Grk trítos, Skt tritá-, Toch B trite), or finally *t(e)r(e)tiyo- (e.g. NWels tryddyd, Lat teritius, NE third, Lith trẽčias, Rus trétij, Av θritiya-, Skt tr̥tíya-) which is presumably a conflation of sorts, in various ways, of the previous two while *tris supplies the multiplicative (e.g. Lat ter, Grk trís, Av θriš, Skt tríṣ; despite its apparent phonetic similarity, NE thrice is of a different origin.


嵭̤ꡤѸ third ƸűѸ tridda ķ *t(e)r(e)tiyo- ˤäꤵ졤θλҲ t äȤˤʤޤλҲϽȯãХˡ§ (grimms_law) ˤ θ ȯãƤϤꤵޤ³ƤƱȯã֥å졤ͥˡ§ (verners_law) ˽äͭ ð Ȥʤꡤ줬æ໤ d ȤʤޤΰϢήϡűѸ fæder (> PDE father) d ǧΤȤޤäƱήǤcf. #480. father ȥͥˡ§ ([2010-08-20-1])ˡˤĤƤ Lass (214) ѤƤޤ礦

3rd. Go þridja, OE þridda, OIc þriþe. This is not entirely suppletive, as it still obviously contains the root for '3'. But the formation is different from that of the other ordinals, involving a suffix */-tjo:-/ (cf. L ter-ti-us). The E, WGmc forms must go back to a variant with an accented suffix, hence the voiced dental from Verner's Law. ModE third is metathesized from þridda (cf. bird < OE bridd, dirt < Osc drit).


ʤĸ٥ǤϡѸ -th Ϣʤ */-to-/ 456νΤߤƤϤޤꡤޥˤ7ʾνˤդ褦ˤʤäΤϡ (analogy) ˤΤǤ (Lass 215) ѸǤ4ʾν -th Ǥ줤·äƤ褦˸ޤȤȤϤǤϤʤäȤˤʤޤ

Mallory, J. P. and D. Q. Adams. The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-05-17-1]

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2021-06-11 Fri

#4428. hedge prototype δط [hedge][prototype][semantics][pragmatics][logic]

Ϣ#4426. hedge ([2021-06-09-1]) ȡ#4427. ͡ hedge ӴϢɽ ([2021-06-10-1]) Τ褦 hedge 夲Ƥ롥 Lakoff ʸ򻲾Ȥƹͻ³
ʸɤ hedge ѤäƤεκǸǤҤ٤ñʤ֤ܤաפǤϤʤ֤̿򿿤餷ˤꡦ¤άפ򤹤٤ʤȤ Lakoff ιͤ hedge ϤΤ褦ʤΤ餷ȡɬŪ˰̣̤˹äƤȤˤʤ̣˴ؤ븡ڼȤůؤˤĤʤäƤ
hedge prototype οط餫ˤʤä㤨Сsort of Ȥ hedge ϡץȥפ龯æΤƤ˺Ѥ̣ΡִؿפȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ºݡLakoff ϥե󾧤 Lofti Zadeh θꥤ󥹥ԥ졼ءŪʴؿѤ tall, very tall, sort of tall, pretty tall, rather tall ΰ̣ʬϤԤʤäƤ롥Lakoff ʸ (482) ꡤʲοޤ򸫤Ƥ餤

Lakoff's Hedges

οޤθϼ̤֤ͤ tall, very tall, sort of tall, pretty tall, rather tall ǤפȤ꤬̿硤ºݤˤɤ줯餤ؤι⤵ǤС̿ϿǤȹͤ뤫ˤĤ¿οͤ˥󥱡Ȥä̤Υޥ꡼ɤ롥Ĥޤꡤ5'3" 5ե3160cmˤ tall ȤߤʤԤϤۤ0%6'3" 6ե3190cmˤǤФۤ100%βԤ tall ʷƻȤߤʤ6'3" ǤСvery tall Ǥ100%˶ᤤ⤤ͤ򼨤rather tall 6'3" ФƤϡäŬڤɽȽǤ
פˡ5ɽФ줿ƶηɽ hedge ȤƤθ̤Ǥ롤ȲǤ롥϶Ǥ뤫顤ŪˤϴؿȤɽǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥 Lakoff ȤƲ餫Ϳ̩ʰ̣ǤδؿΩܻؤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤhedge prototype δط褯ʬͤǤϤ롥
ˤĤ Lakoff Ȥ (492--93) ѤƤ

6.5. Algebraic Functions Play a Role in the Semantics of Certain Hedges

Hedges like SORT OF, RATHER, PRETTY, and VERY change distribution curves in a regular way. Zadeh has proposed that such changes can be described by simple combinations of a small number of algebraic functions. Whether or not Zadeh's proposals are correct in all detail, it seems like something of the sort is necessary. . . .

6.6. Perceptual Finiteness Depends on an Underlying Continuum of Values

Since people can perceive, for each category, only a finite number of gradations in any given context, one might be tempted to suggest that fuzzy logic be limited to a relatively small finite number of values. But the study of hedges like SORT OF, VERY, PRETTY, and RATHER, whose effect seems to be characterizable at least in part by algebraic functions, indicates that the number and distribution of perceived values is a surface matter, determined by the shape of underlying continuous functions. For this reason, it seems best not to restrict fuzzy logic to any fixed finite number of values. Instead, it seems preferable to attempt to account for the perceptual phenomena by trying to figure out how, in a perceptual model, the shape of underlying continuous functions determines the number and distribution of perceived values.


Ĥδ֤ˤեȤȴʤʤΰˤޤãƤޤä⤽ hedge ֤ܤʸաˡפȤǧϤޤä櫓ʤΤǡΥƤʤ褦ˤפƤ

Lakoff, G. "Hedges: A Study in Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts." Journal of Philosophical Logic 2 (1973): 458--508.

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2021-06-10 Thu

#4427. ͡ hedge ӴϢɽ [hedge][prototype][semantics][pragmatics][intensifier]

εǡ#4426. hedge ([2021-06-09-1]) 夲ѸˤĤƤ sort of hedge ɽȤƵ󤲤뤳Ȥ¿ºݤΤȤ hedge μ¿ͤǤ롥
ΰʸǿ줿 Lakoff ʸɤp. 472 "SOME HEDGES AND RELATED PHENOMENA" ꤹɽǤƤ롥Ѹ hedge ʴϢɽζȤơʲ˷ǺܤƤ

sort of
kind of
loosely speaking
more or less
on the _____ side (tall, fat, etc.)
roughly
pretty (much)
relatively
somewhat
rather
mostly
technically
strictly speaking
essentially
in essence
basically
principally
particularly
par excellence
largely
for the most part
very
especially
exceptionally
quintessential(ly)
literally
often
more of a _____ than anything else
almost
typically/typical

as it were
in a sense
in one sense
in a real sense
in an important sense
in a way
mutatis mutandis
in a manner of speaking
details aside
so to say
a veritable
a true
a real
a regular
virtually
all but technically
practically
all but a
anything but a
a self-styled
nominally
he calls himself a ...
in name only
actually
really
(he as much as ...
-like
-ish
can be looked upon as
can be viewed as
pseudo-
crypto-
(he's) another (Caruso/Lincoln/ Babe Ruth/...)
_____ is the _____ of _____ (e,g., America is the Roman Empire of the modern world. Chomsky is the DeGaulle of Linguistics. etc.)


ʬ褦ˡ#4236. intensifier ʬ ([2020-12-01-1]) ǵ󤲤̣Ǥζո (intensifier) ϡ hedge ΰȤߤʤȤǤ롥ޤ hedge ñˡ֤ܤաפ餤ǧƤǤʤȤʬäƤ̿򿿤餷ˤꡦ¤ά򤷤ƤΤ褵

Lakoff, G. "Hedges: A Study in Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts." Journal of Philosophical Logic 2 (1973): 458--508.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-06-11-1]

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2021-06-09 Wed

#4426. hedge [hedge][pragmatics][terminology][cooperative_principle][prototype][sociolinguistics][cognitive_linguistics][semantics]

hedge (hedge) ϡѸ졦ǰȤƹΤƤ롥ѸȤƤϡֳפ̣ñžơ֤ܤաפ̣롥ܸյΤȤȸäۤʬ䤹
إ˥¼ŵ٤ˤȡ֡ʸȤʤΡˤϤ餫ȯܤ硨̸͸Ĵ¤餲աإåԢI wonder, sort of ʤɡաפȤ롥
ޤCruse ΰ̣Ѹ콸Ƥߤȡؤʬ䤹ͿƤ

hedge An expression which weakens a speaker's commitment to some aspect of an assertion:
   She was wearing a sort of turban.
   To all intents and purposes, the matter was decided yesterday.
   I've more or less finished the job.
   As far as I can see, the plan will never succeed.
   She's quite shy, in a way.


Ҥ٤Ƥ̿˴ؤơ줬ȤʤΤϤβˤƤǤ롤Ⱦդ򤷤ƤȽΤͽɤ뤿θάȤäƤ褤̤ˤϡ#1122. Ĵθ ([2012-05-23-1]) ˤäƥҤ٤櫓ˤ⤤ʤǸդȤˤäơͿʤDzؤ˺ѤޤƤȤάǤ롥ϻ䤿Ū˹ԤʤäƤ뤳ȤǤꡤܸ˸¤餺ɤθˤƤ⤽Τμʤ͡ѰդƤ롥
hedge ȤѸ嵭Τ褦ʸŪʰ̣򤷤ƤѸȤƤ hedge ϤȤǧΰ̣ʸ̮Ȥ櫓 prototype ʸ̮Ѥ줿Τ餷Bussmann Ѹ콸 (205)

hedge
Term introduced by Lakoff (1973). Hedges provide a means for indicating in what sense a member belongs to its particular category. The need for hedges is based on the fact that certain members are considered to be better or more typical examples of the category, depending on the given cultural background ( prototype). For example, in the central European language area, sparrows are certainly more typical examples of birds than penguins. For that reason, of these two actually true sentences, A sparrow is a bird and A penguin is a bird, only the former can be modified by the hedge typical or par excellence, while the latter can be modified only by the hedges in the strictest sense or technically speaking.


θѸ켫ΤȾδ̣֡礤ѤʤȯŸƤȤȤΤ褦ȤǡĿŪˤ hedge ȤѸϤɤ⤷äꤳʤʤֳס

Cruse, Alan. A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
Lakoff, G. "Hedges: A Study in Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts." Journal of Philosophical Logic 2 (1973): 458--508.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-06-11-1] [2021-06-10-1]

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2021-06-08 Tue

#4425. ջ̤ǤϤʤñ̤ɽ魯̤ʹԷ [aspect][tense][future][progressive][semantics][verb][functionalism][bleaching][grammaticalisation][auxiliary_verb]

will be doing ηɽ蘆̤ʹԷ (future progressive) ˡˤĤơǤ̤λȤϡ̤ΤˤƿʹνɽȤΤǤ롥߿ʹԷλ߻ǤꡤʹԷλǤΤȤޤäʿŪˡ̤ξѤΤ̤ʹԷȤȤWe'll be waiting for you at 9 o'clock tomorrow morning. When you reach the end of the bridge, I'll be waiting there to show you the way. Τ褦ʸǤ롥ˡ礭褷ʤ
̤ʹԷΤ⤦1ĤˡϡŪñ̤ʡԤ̤סˤˡǤ롥ñ̤ will do η̤ˤäƤɽǤ뤬Ȱջ̤ɤߤȶ̤ĤʤʤȤ롥㤨 I'll talk to him soon. ǤϡüԤΰջ֤ΤäֶᤤäĤפΰ̣ñʤԤΡֶᤤä뤳Ȥˤʤפۤɤΰ̣ʸ̮λ٤ʤ¤ξŪȤʤ롥Τ褦ʾ I'll be talking to him soon. ̤ʹԷˤ뤳ȤˤꡤԤɤߤŪ˼ȤǤ롥
Ʊͤ Will you come to the party tonight? ϡ֤ʤեѡƥʤפȤͶΰ̣ʤΤ֤ʤեѡƥ뤳ȤˤʤäƤ͡פۤɤνʵ䤢뤤ϳǧΰ̣ʤΤξŪȤʤꤦ롥Ԥΰ̣Ūɽ路ˤϡWill you be coming to the party tonight? Ѥ뤳ȤǤ롥
Ūˤ will do ̤ɽϡ˾ջ֤ɽ路ư줬ΰ̣ɺ (bleaching) ɽ魯νưؤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ΤȤcf. #2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ ([2015-05-14-1])#2317. Ѹˤ̤ȯã ([2015-08-31-1])ˡνư will ȤƤäñ̤פɺ򤷤櫓ǤϤʤ򤢤ٻĤְջ̤פʿԤƹԤʤƤ롥ʸˡˤФز (layering) λǤ롥زη̡ξŪȤʤäƤޤä櫓ʤΤǡΰ̣Ƥǡ̤򻲾ȤʹԷפȤȯãƤ will be doing η򡤡ñ̤פΤˤήѤȤȯۤޤ줿ʸˡζͤΤ褦ʤȤäƤ褦Ƕ̣
嵭Τ褦ʻ𤬤뤿ᡤ̾ϸߡʹԷȤʤư줬̤ʹԷȤƤѤǽФƤ롥He'll be owning his own house next year. Τ褦ʸ򻲾ȡ
ʾ塤Ȥ Quirk et al. (4.46) 򻲾ȤƼɮʤ̤ʹԷȯã19ʹߤŪݤǤ롥

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

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2021-06-07 Mon

#4424. Ѹ쿷ʹФ̻ŪѲ [newspaper][syntax][genre][pragmatics]

Ѹ쿷ʹ˴ؤŪˤˤĤơFries γɤѥȤʤޤȤޤäƤꡤʬܳŪʴؿ󤻤ȤϤʤäΤΡƤ⤷ʬǧ뤳ȤǤä˴ؿäΤϸФ (headline) ̻ŪѲǤ롥ʲˡFries (1070--71) ƤҲ𤷤
ʹθФ70ǯĶˤͭ롥ָФפȤäƤ⡤䤿Ƥ륿פθФ (headline proper) Τۤˤ⤤Ĥμब롥1718ƬˤƤϡνн (dateline) äƸФȤ봷̤ä
ޤ̾Ի̾̾ʤɤ1, 2üŪɽหФ (section heading) Ūä (ex. "LONDON", "AUSTRIA", "BIRTHS", "SHIP NEWS") οʹǤСڡξ1ǰƤơޤΤȹͤ롥
20νᤫϡ³Ω渫Ф (crosshead) ⸽Ƥ
䤿Ƥ̾θФ (headline proper) ϡ¤ϸŤΤ褦ˤä櫓ǤϤʤ18ޤǤϾ嵭Τ褦˸ФȤ dateline §Ǥꡤheadline proper Ȥ褦ˤʤäƤΤ19äƤǤ롥θ塤¤ʬۤäƤʿѸ12٤7ĹˤޤĹ
headline proper ϡŪˤ̾ŪФưŪФʬ롥̾ŪФȤ The earthquakes, The Russian epidemic, Surrender of General Johnston, Brazil and Portugal, Russian and India Τ褦ʥפؤ
ưŪФˤϡTo cease fire, Normal life returning to Krefeld, Recall suggested Τ褦ưѤΤ⤢СGerman Cabinet resigns Τ褦ưѤΤ⤢롥19ޤǤϤۤȤɸ줺ưŪФϤƸŪħȤäƤ褤
ŪȤϰ̣Ūʴ鸫ФʬहȡArrival of the La Plata, Destructive Fires, Prices up Τ褦 "relational" ʥפȡA Scotch Ghost Τ褦ʽ˾˴ؤ̾Ūʡ"regional" ʥפʬ롥
ʹϡǥȤƤȯŸȤȤˡθŪħ礭ѲƤѸνפʥȤơʹѸŪˤ礭ʲǽꤽ

Fries, Udo. "English and the Media: Newspapers." Chapter 68 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1063--75.

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2021-06-06 Sun

#4423. ֺ¡ֱѸˤȸ츻פ10ҳȳǰѡפ򽪤ޤ [asacul][notice][history][link][slide][age_of_discovery][spanish][printing][caxton][cawdrey][dictionary][standardisation][age_of_discovery]

529ڡˤ15:30?18:45ˡī㡼󥿡ɶˤֱѸˤȸ츻10ҳȳǰѡ򳫹֤ޤ12Υ꡼Ǥ褤轪פäƤޤԼͳ¿ΤʤäƤ˴פޤĤ̤ꡤ䥳Ȥ¿ޤ
Τäμݤϰʲ̤Ǥ

15Ⱦ?16ȾΥ󥰥ɤϡ衼åѤǻϤޤäƤҳȳǰѤȯȤ˾طʤˡȤȤơޤήȤȤơɬĤϺƤǤκޤǤˡѸϥ󥰥ɤιȤ뤲ƤΤΡгŪˤС줿ƥΰҸˡޤؤȤϤޤǤѸˤǤŪΩʤƱܤ褿٤λؤ­館ޤ


ιֺ¤Ѥ饤ɤ˸ޤʲ˥饤ɤγƥڡؤΥ󥯤ĥäƤޤ

1. Ѹˤȸ츻10ҳȳǰѡ
2. 10ҳȳǰ
3. ܼ
4. 1. ҳ
5. ϩάǯɽ
6. ҳ夬⤿餷 --- Ѹˤδ
7. 1492ǯڥαɸ
8. 2. ǰ
9. Ѥάǯɽ
10. ƥ٥륯 (1400?--68)
11. ꥢࡦ㥯ȥ (1422?--91)
12. ѤȶȤƤαѸ
13. Ѥֻɸಽؤι׸
14. ְѤƳֻɸಽʤؤε
15. ֻɸಽϤޤǴ˿ʹԤ
16. 3. ΰ줿Ѹɤ
17. Table Alphabeticall (1604) by Robert Cawdrey
18. ޤȤ
19. ʸ

Υ꡼11ϡ֥ͥ󥹤ȽספǤ2021ǯ731ڡˤ15:30?18:45˳ͽǤѸˤȤäơƥĤĤĤȤƼΩƤȤ⤬ƤƣλǤֺ¤ξܺ٤ɤ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-02-20-1] [2022-03-12-1]

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2021-06-05 Sat

#4422. code-switching ꤦ˴ؤ 2 x 2 ʬ [code-switching][contact][typology][sociolinguistics][bilingualism]

code-switching θʹƤޤפ⤫֤Τϡ㤨ܸȱѸή礦˻ȤʤüԤɤäΤʤǤɤΤ褦˻ѸڤؤƤ뤫ѻͻ롤Ȥतθ code-switching Ȥݤ򹭤Ȥ館ȡ (borrowing) ȤζܤϤܤ䤱Ƥ뤷ܿˤ봳ĤˤܶᤷƤ롥ʲεǤⰷäƤ褦ˡcode-switching ϸܿ (contact) ̤˵ڤ礭ʥơޤǤ롥

#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])
#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])
#2009. ؤˤܿġ2ѡѡ ([2014-10-27-1])

Ƭ˽Ҥ٤褦ή礦2üԤɤβä˸¤餺1üԤɤβäΤʤǤ code-switching 뤳ȤϤ롥㤨дŪܸΤߤä2ͤñ򻶤ФƲäƤСˤϤ code-switching ƤȤ⤤Τ
Winford (102) ϡLüdi 򻲾Ȥơ(1) ͿüԤƱѡȥ꡼äƤ뤫ݤ(2) 2Ѿ1ѾȤ2Ĥμˤäơcode-switching ꤦ4ʬष

 BilingualUnilingual
ExolingualInteraction among speakers with different languagesInteraction between native and non-native speakers of the same language
EndolingualInteraction among bilingualsInteraction among monolinguals


"code-stitching" ΰŪʥ᡼ϡޥȥåκ "Endolingual Bilingual" ෿˴Ťƹͤȡ4ξ1ĤˤʤȤˤʤ롥̾ code-switching ʤɴؤʤȻפ줬 "Exolingual Unilingual" "Endolingual Unilingual" ⡤code-switching μ뤳Ȥ狼롥
෿ϡΤ褦ƶ٤ͿƤˤ롥#2348. Ѹˤˤ code-switching ([2015-10-01-1]) Ǥߤ褦˱ѸˤˤƤ code-switching ϽפʥơޤȤʤ뤬෿˾Ȥ餷ƺƹͤƤߤСʻȲ꤬⤭夬äƤΤǤϤʤ

Winford, Donald. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.
Lüdi, G. "Les marques transcodiques: regards nouveaux sur le bilinguisme." Devenir bilingue --- parler bilingue. Actes du 2e colloque sur le bilinguisme, Université de Neuchâtel, 20--22 Septembre, 1984. Ed. G. Lüdi. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1987. 1--21.

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2021-06-04 Fri

#4421. ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸פ򥪡ץ󤷤ޤ [heldio][hellog-radio][sobokunagimon][notice][hel_education][voicy]

ۿץåȥե Voicy ˤֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸ꤹͥ򥪡ץ󤷤ޤܥ֥ȤʬŪϢȤĤġѸˤ˴ؤ륳ƥĤ򹭤ϤߤȤƻϤޤȡ10ʬβƥĤ2ۿƤޤΤǡ򤴰⤷ޤ

1. ֤ʤ A pen ʤΤ AN apple ʤΡ
2. flower ʲ֡ˤ flour ʾʴˤƱ츻

ͥΩμݤϡVoicy ڡ˷ǺܤƤޤʲ̤Ǥ

Ѹˤ򸦵椷Ƥޤؤδʤۤä夦ˤǤΥͥǤϡѸ˴ؤѤʵȤơꥹʡγ򹭤Ѹˤ˾ԤޤȤ櫓츻꤬ܤǤ
Ѹˤʹ񤷤Ȼפ⤷ޤ󤬡ۤޤ󡥼¤ϳ󤬱ѸФŪƤʥ˰פƤ⤷̣ʤΤǤ
ʤե٥åȤ26ʸʤΡʤ man ʣ men ʤΡʤ3ñ s ʤƤΡʤ go β went ʤΡʤѸϤʤǻȤƤΡ
Ѹͥƥ֥ԡ⼭ⶵƤʤä椬륹Ȳ褷Ƥ̣äƤĤǤˡѸƦμˤȤɤޤ餺դοˤⵤŤȤˤʤȻפޤ
ܥͥƱ褦ʼݤǡhellog?Ѹ˥֥פ򹹿Ƥޤ碌Ƥʤϥå奿 #heldio ϡ"The History of the English Language Radio" ˤʤߤޤ


Ūˤϡޤǻ䤬ܥ֥񡤻ﵭض顤ֺ¤ʤɤǰӤƹԤʤäƤֱѸˤ̥ϤפȤưαĹǤǥǥ󥹡Ѥ뤫⤷ޤ󤬡ˤѤޤ
ͥΩطʤˤĤơ⤦Ҥ٤ƤȻפޤǯ١ؤʤɤǥ饤ǯ٤ȤʤäȤȴϢơ̾ʸϤˤ֥ۿ˲äơǵhellog 饸ǡȤۿߤϤޤȤƱѸ˴ؤѤʵȤݤǡشŪˡشϤǤ³Ƥޤ̤Ȥơʬ10ʬ٤ĹβƥĤ62Ѥޤ
ʤɤ͡ʥեɥХåäʬäȤϡȯ˴ؤȥԥåϲƥĤΤۤ䤹ȤȤǤȤäǤϥʥۥɤȿʤޤ伫ȤϱѸֻȯδط礭ʴؿ󤻤ƤꡤϤ褯夲ΤǤʸϥ֥ǤȯȯɽʤФʤ餺ºݤ˸ȯФΤưפʤɤ򡤤ɤǴƤޤΤ褦ޤˡ˲ƥĤäƤߤ顤ȯɤȤΤȤ˲ƵŤǤդ˲ǥǤֻˤĤƤϸˤȤ¦̤⤢ꡤĹûǤϤΤǤʸϥ١ܥ֥ʿԤơ١Υ֥Ȥ褤ȹͤޤ
ǯ٤ϼhellog 饸ǡäƤޤ򺣥־Dzۿץåȥեब¤ƤƤȤήϿۿؤǰƬ Voicy ̤ۿ뤳Ȥפޤ
ܡhellog?Ѹ˥֥פǤϡ٤Ū꤫ɤޤǡθޤޤ͡ʥ٥ǽ񤤤ƤΤǤƥĤȤʤȡѤʵ׷Ϥñθ츻˴ؤ꤬¿ʤ뤫ȻפޤŪˤɤΤ褦ʴˤʤäƤΤϻʬʤΤǤˤȤƤϡֱѸˤ˴ؤ򹭤Ĺ󶡤³׼ݤǡܥ֥λǤΤ褦ʰ֤ŤȤʤäƤФ褤ʤȻפäƤޤ̾Ρϥå奿#heldio (= "The History of the English Language Radio") ȤΤ⡤ܥ֥ȤϢȤǰƬ֤Ǥ̿̾Ǥ
Ȥ⡤ܡhellog?Ѹ˥֥פȹ碌ơֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸Τۤꤤ夲ޤ

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2021-06-03 Thu

#4420. ѤȤøŪʤꡩ [borrowing][contact][suffix][french][loan_translation][false_friend]

ܿ (contact) γ񤤤Ƥ Winford ϡʸˡܤμѲǽϤƤʤΤΡŦƤʸˡѤλ¿ϡ̾θüѤ١ȤΤǤꡤȯŸǤȤ٤ΤΤǤϤʤȤͤ򼨤Ƥ롥
㤨С̤Ѹˤϥե󥹸줫¿ܼѤ줿Ȥ롥 (suffix) ˸¤äƤ -acioun, -age, -aunce, -erie, -ment, -ite; -ant, -ard, -esse, -our; -able, -al, -iv, -ous, -ate, -ify, -ize ʤɤ󤲤 (Winford 57) ѸüԤϡե󥹸äԥݥȤڤäƼƤ櫓ǤϤʤޤǤñ̤˼ƤθڤФơѸθŬѤΤŪ˥ե󥹸줫ܼѤΤ褦˸뤬ºݤΥץϡüѤθܼڤФŬѤȤȤʤΤ
Ʊͤˡ츫ŪʼѤ˸⡤칽¤ùܤμѤޤϢưǷŪ칽¤ΤΤ⥳ԡ줿̤ȤߤʤȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
㤨СWinford (66) Silva-Corvalán 1994ǯθ򻲾ȤơɸॹڥȡѸǻܿƤ󥼥륹ڥιʸӤƤ롥ѸǤ they broke my jaw 칽¤ԤǤͿ me ȼ y me quebraron la mandibula ȤʤΤΡԤǤϱѸ° mi ȼ y quebraron mi, mi jaw ȤʤȤ󥼥륹ڥιʸˤƱѸ줫ѤƤ褦ˤߤ뤬̩ˤСּѡפȤϡѸ칽¤򻲾ȤǤΥ󥼥륹ڥȤƤˡγĥȤ٤⤷ʤȤΤϡɸॹڥǤ⡤Ԥι¤ԼǤϤ뤬ƶоݤ֤פΤ褦ʿΤ̤ǤϤʤΤڤΥ̤νͭʪξˤϡ̤Ѥ뤫ĤޤꡤȤȤΥڥˤäѡŪ¤бѸ칽¤˿ȯơˤޤäΤ褦˻פ롥ּѡפȸƤ֤ȤǤΤȡФ Winford η (68)

Silva-Corvalán (1998) discusses several other examples like these, and argues that the changes involved are not the outcome of direct borrowing of a syntactic structures or rules from one language into another (1998: 225). Rather, what is involved is a kind of "lexico-syntactic calquing" (ibid.) triggered by partial congruence between Spanish and English words. This results in Spanish words assuming the semantic and/or subcategorization properties of the apparent English equivalents (faux amis). Her findings lead her to the conclusion that "what is borrowed across languages is not syntax, but lexicon and pragmatics" (1998: 226) This claim certainly seems to hold for cases of language maintenance with bilingualism such as that in LA.


ѡפ "lexico-syntactic calquing" (cf. loan_translation) Ȥơ뤤Ū "faux amis" (cf. false_friend) ȤƤȤ館ϤޤǤˤʤäܤ줿

Winford, Donald. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.
Silva-Corvalán, Carmen. Language Contact and Change: Spanish in Los Angeles. Oxford: Clarendon, 1994.
Silva-Corvalán, Carmen. "On Borrowing as a Mechanism of Syntactic Change." Romance Linguistics: Theoretical Perspectives. Ed. Shwegler, Armin, Bernard Tranel, and Myriam Uribe-Etxebarria. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1998. 225--46.

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2021-06-02 Wed

#4419. ּѤ˲ݤ¡4 [borrowing][contact][morphology][morpheme]

ùܤμѤϤФ뤬ʸˡܤμѤϤޤǤ롥ΤȤϡ (borrowing) ܿ (contact) εǰŪǧƤ뤳ȤʸˡܤȤäƤ͡Ǥ롥㤨СŪѤϳΤ˵Τ褦ŪѤ˻礫ʤԤΤʤǤǤ϶޷Ǥùܤ˶ᤤ˼ѻ¿Ȥ롥ޤŪäǤ롥
ʸˡѤϤɤΤ褦ʾΤȤΤˤϤɤΤ褦ʸŪ¤ݤƤΤܿǤ⤿ӤƤǡܥ֥ǤϰʲεǸڤƤ

#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ෿ ([2014-03-13-1])
#2011. Moravcsik ˤѤ ([2014-10-29-1])
#2113. ʸˡѤξ ([2015-02-08-1])
#2067. Weinreich ˤ촳Ĥηװ ([2014-12-24-1])
#4410. ܿη̤˴ؤ礭ʸޡ ([2021-05-24-1])

Winford (93--96) ϡWeinreich, Heath, Thomason and Kaufman ʤɤԸ򻲾Ȥʤ顤ּѤ˲ݤ¤Ȥ4󤲤Ƥ롥

Morphological constraint 1 (borrowing):
   The greater the congruence between morphological structures across languages in contact, the greater the ease of borrowing.
   . . . .
Morphological constraint 2 (borrowing):
   The greater the degree of transparency of a morpheme, the greater the likelihood of its diffusion. By contrast, the more opaque (complex, bound, phonologically reduced) a morpheme is, the less likely it is to be borrowed.
   . . . .
Morphological constraint 3 (borrowing):
   The existence of gaps in the morphemic inventory of a recipient language facilitates the importation of new morphemes and functional categories from a source language.
   . . . .
Morphological constraint 4 (borrowing):
   The lack of a functional category in a source language may lead to loss of a similar category in a recipient language


ԸǤǤ˻ŦƤ4Ȥǡ̤Ϥ褯ʤäƤ롥򤵤2ˤޤ󤹤С2֤ι¤Ūפȡָ naturalnessפ˹Ԥ夯

Winford, Donald. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
Heath, Jeffrey. Linguistic Diffusion in Arnhem Land. Australian Aboriginal Studies: Research and Regional Studies 13. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, 1978.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.

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2021-06-01 Tue

#4418. ʻ硤Subassembly Strategyʲܲ --- ʲؤˤŪʻε [syntax][biology][evolution][exaptation]

˸ز2019ǯΥݥֿʲؤؤξԡפǤδĴֱ˴Ťʸ˸ء٤κǿ˷ǺܤƤ롥ʲؤȤʬˤĤƻ伫Ȥ糰ƣʸֳŪ󥿥ȡʼʡ˲ܲפɤߡΤ褦ʵʤƤΤȶ̣ФƱʸϡƬ (p. 69) ǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

äˡʹָ礭ħȤʤäƤŪŪ󥿥ˤĤơ줬ʪΤȤ߹碌γŬŪʲˤȤֱư浯 (Fujita 2009, 2017, ƣ 2012 ¾ˤ򿶤֤ꡤǻĤƤ֡ʼʡ˲ܲ ((self-)-domestication)פδ褹ǽˤĤƹͻƤߤ


ʲؤʸˡˤơʻ (merger) ϡ2ĤΡʸùܤӸùܤʤ뽸ˤȤ߹碌1Ĥ̵ (unordered set) Ū黻סƣġp. 71ˤؤ꼰ȡMerge(, ¡ {, } ȤȤ2ĤΤǤȤ߹碌ñ1षʤʤ "Pairing Strategy" ȸƤФˡ3ĤΤȤʤȡάפϤäʣˤʤ롥
A ʾ, B , C ˤ3ĤΥåפꤷ褦3ĤΥåפ򤹤äݤϤ2̤ꤢ롥B C ˤϤᡤǸ˺Ǿ A 碌ƤϤȤ1 ("Pot Strategy") ⤦1Ĥϡ A B ˤϤƤΰβΤ C ˤϤȤ ("Subassembly Strategy")
ƣĤβˤСάοʲϡ"Pairing Strategy" "Pot Strategy" "Subassembly Strategy" νǵäƤΤǤϤʤȤΤ褦ʡֹưʸˡפοʲϢưǡΤʻʲƤΤǤϤʤȡơβΤȤֱư浯פȸƤǤ롥
"Subassembly Strategy" κħϡ˷򵭲ߤƤΤʬʤȤƺѤסƣġp. 76ˤˤ롥ȿٱ䤵ǽϡʿкȤϤȤȤ館Ƥ褤⤷ʤϿʹ֤椹ǽϤ˴ؤΤǡּʲܲפȤФƤȤ
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