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2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ǯܥ֥ӻǤ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) ȤޤVoicy heldio ΥʥƥޤΤǡǯΰޤǤ364ˤĤơİˤޤ30ޤǵޤ̤ܵΥHTMLˡ
1. #980. ̵֤֤ǰƤƤǤΤ --- ؤγƤäѤʵ547ˡ2024-02-05ۿ
2. #1171. ʾҲ --- Ѹ˸ԤδǤ528ˡ2024-08-13ۿ
3. #1166. ʤѸǤϤĤ줬ɬפʤΡ --- ΤαѸˡ507ˡ2024-08-08ۿ
4. #945. ʤѲΤ490ˡ2024-01-01ۿ
5. #1067. 449ǯ --- إǯ嵭٤γƥȤűѸ첻ɡ478ˡ2024-05-02ۿ
6. #1093.֤ϤƤθűѸ7ơ with Ͻؤ&ޤˤ --- Bede ɤ (4)382ˡ2024-05-28ۿ
7. #947. ʤѲʤΤ352ˡ2024-01-03ۿ
8. #1030. ֤ϤƤθűѸ with Ͻؤ&ޤˤ --- Bede ɤ347ˡ2024-03-26ۿ
9. #1124. ֤ϤƤθűѸ9 with Ͻؤ&ޤˤ&¼Ϻ331ˡ2024-06-27ۿ
10. #1107. ֤ϤƤθűѸ8ơ with Ͻؤ&ޤˤ --- Bede ɤ (5)325ˡ2024-06-11ۿ
11. #948. ʤʬƻ1֤̾2ʾβˤʤ̾θ֤Ρ323ˡ2024-01-04ۿ
12. #1201. īѤʵܥΥå with Ͻؤ --- ֱѸ˥饤2024פ318ˡ2024-09-12ۿ
13. #1054. ǯٽΡֱѸ˴ؤѤʵ䡡ܥΥå with Ͻؤ317ˡ2024-04-19ۿ
14. #1243. ʤѸˤñʣζ̤Ρ --- ΤαѸˡ305ˡ2024-10-24ۿ
15. #1057. ֤ϤƤθűѸ with Ͻؤ&ޤˤ --- Bede ɤ (2)300ˡ2024-04-22ۿ
16. #1005. and ΰ̣äƹͤȤޤ290ˡ2024-03-01ۿ
17. #1172. ʤ have, do 3ñ has, does §ŪʤΤǤ --- ΤαѸˡ286ˡ2024-08-14ۿ
18. #1087. ѸѸϥեȤȤˤ282ˡ2024-05-22ۿ
19. #1033. figure 濴ˡ֤إ饸סإå1900(9) ñθ츻䤦277ˡ2024-03-29ۿ
20. #1031. ѸϿ̤ɽ魯Τ°ʤࡩ --- ֻ of 뤿ˡ273ˡ2024-03-27ۿ
21. #1066. Υޥ --- Ten Sixty-Six273ˡ2024-05-01ۿ
22. #1011. Ѥʥե٥åɽפδȸ with ߷270ˡ2024-03-07ۿ
23. #1003. There is an apple on the table. --- Ϥɤ졩269ˡ2024-02-28ۿ
24. #1026. ʤ now know ȯ㤦Ρ259ˡ2024-03-22ۿ
25. #1046. إϥꥦåɱDzȱѸѲ١ʳҡ2024ǯˡ258ˡ2024-04-11ۿ
26. #991. while ʸˡ257ˡ2024-02-16ۿ
27. #1197. khelf šֱѸ˥饤2024פϤޤޤ257 ˡ2024-09-08ۿ
28. #990. ʸˡȤϲ255ˡ2024-02-15ۿ
29. #988. 夦夦ñȤñ --- Ƹȵǽ253ˡ2024-02-13ۿ
30. #1016. schedule ȯϡ֥塼פ֥ǥ塼פ --- Ѥʥե٥åɽפ S ιܤ251ˡ2024-03-12ۿ
1̤ϡˤȤäƤϡ糰äΤǡ˰ճޤ̤ˤϡΤαѸˡס֤ϤƤθűѸסܥΥåפʤɤΥΤäƤޤѤʵϤۿĴǤ
̲ȤƤϡ25̤#1046. إϥꥦåɱDzȱѸѲ١ʳҡ2024ǯˡäƤޤ٥ȷϤȤƤϡ27̤#1197. khelf šֱѸ˥饤2024פϤޤޤޤ
嵭ΥΥȤϡ heldio #1311. 2024ǯ heldio ۿǤ褯İ줿٥10ǤۿƤޤΤǡɤİ
̲ʹƨƤΡƤ˺ƤΤСǯǯϤΤ֤ΤȤˤޤȤİƤСǯˤϡ2024ǯ4ȾΥꥹʡɼ»ܤȻפäƤޤ
hellog ɤߤäƤ볧͡2024ǯ⤪äˤʤޤǯⲿ´ꤤޤ

37,000ͤĶɼ"Oxford Word of the Year 2024" brain rot ˷ޤޤOxford ؽǤˤץ쥹Ǥ
brain rot ϼ̤ꡥ
the supposed deterioration of a person's mental or intellectual state, especially viewed as the result of overconsumption of material (now particularly online content) considered to be trivial or unchallenging. Also: something characterized as likely to lead to such deterioration
ߺդĤIJޤСΥ饤ƥĤӤ뤳ȤˤäŪ¤ळȡפۤɤǤ礦Oxford Ĵˤȡ˺ǯβȾ٤ޤäȤΤȤǤǯؤΥ饤ʸޤ졤ĹɽȤƤޤ
brain rot νФ1854ǯǡHenry David Thoreau (1817--62) Walden, or Life in the Woods ˸ޤʸ̮ϡ"While England endeavours to cure the potato rot, will not any endeavour to cure the brain-rot - which prevails so much more widely and fatally?" ǤŪư㲼¸ݤˤ̤㥬˸ΩƤʸɾΰĤȤƤŪɽǤ롥
ܥ֥Ϥ͡ΤDZѸ˥ƥĤȯƤޤ brain rot θȤʤʤ褦դƤȻפޤ
ʤߤ˺ǯ2023ǯήԸޤФ줿Τ rizz ǤˤĤƤϡ#5342. ڤ (clipping) ˤ ([2023-12-12-1]) ȡ20ǯ Oxford ˤĤƤϡθڡɤ

1228ڡˤˡط Helvillian 〜ϥѸˡ٤κǿȤʤ32025ǯ1ޤ
heldio/helwa Υꥹʡʤ֥ͭإᥤȤˤǡ28ˡη֤γˤ͡ʱѸ˳ưhel (helkatsu) note ǥĥĤľҲ𤷤ƤȤhelǤ note եƤФȻפޤ
ǿ⽼¤Υ饤ʥåפǤޤ쥮顼Ϣܤμब¿ʤޤ note ٸ뵭μɮԤ٤Ƥޤ夵ˤ˱Ѹ˥ϢܤĴǤ
ƺýϡᴶΤֱѸˤ椯ǯǯסʢӱܡˤǤ2024ǯhelο֤ꡤӿǯ˸ƤʤɡإᥤȤζᶷƤޤGrace ˤɽΤȤ Helvillian Խ嵭ɤƨʤ褦ɽˤ⤳꤬ޤΤǡܤ
ܥ֥Ǥ夲#5714. ʿܥΥå ([2024-12-18-1]) ϡ128Υ٥ȤǤΤǡ Helvillian Ǥ夲Ƥޤ⤽⺣ɽäƤΤϺʿؤʤΤǤ٥ȤΥۥȤ̳ƤäꥹʡΤߡˤ뵭ֶ2024ǯ12δ춵ˬס䡤Ȥ˻ä줿إᥤ Grace εֺʿղܥΥå˥ݡؤĥƤޤ
ɤ Grace Lilimi MISATO (Galois) umisio ˤϡǯΤ˻ޤˤޤꤤޤƴդޤ
ˤĤƤܥֱ֥Ѹθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)Ǥ⤷Ƥޤ⤼ҤȤ
heldio #1282. Helvillian 2椬ޤ --- إᥤȤˤ뼫Ūhel2024ǯ1029ۿ
helwa ֡ڱѸˤ #204۽ˡHelvillian ϴ2024ǯ1029ۿ
heldio #1248. Helvillian ϴ --- helwa ꥹʡ֤ͭˤ륦֥ޥ2024ǯ123ۿ
hellog #5700. ַ Helvillian ϴ桦2椬Ƥޤ ([2024-12-04-1])
ʰʲ嵭2025/01/06(Mon)

*
1223Ҥηؤդ2025ǯ1Ԥޤǯ١ƱϢֱܵѸˤįեפƤƤޤ10ֱѸֻˤեαƶפǤ
ʤȺϡؤդ٤100ǯȤǰ٤Ǥ"Revue France, 100 ans!" ɽˤꡤý֤դ100ǯפǺܤƤޤΤ褦ʵǰΰˡեˤʤ̱ѸˤϢܵܤƤΤ϶̤Ǥ⤢ꡤӤǤ⤢ޤʽִ֤Ω碌ƤҤˤⴶդޤ
1. Ѹֻϰճȥե
ΥޥαƶǡθαѸֻˤϥեֻ¿ʬȿǤƤޤñֻ¤ϥեŪǤ뤳ȤϤޤΤƤޤ
2. ɹפ īs ice
ѸֻϡեαƶΤѸˤ礭Ƥޤֲ꽤פη̡㤨иѸ ice ˤߤ褦 -ce ֻѤޤ
3. ԻҲֻ c ch
եαƶˤꡤűѸǤ c ɽ줿ԻҲѸ ch ؤִޤˤñ child church ʤɤֻΩޤ
4. äűѸʸ
űѸǾѤ줿ʸ (æ, ƿ, þ, ðˤϡե¸ߤʤäȤ⤢ꡤѸʹߤ˿षƤǽŪˤϾǤޤ
5. ʤѸֻϥե줫֤줷Τ
ѸֻϡDzܻؤΤǤϤʤषҿեֻ뤳Ȥˤꡤ㴳ʣޤեϸϤȶܤθäΤǤ
ѸֻˤեαƶϡѸֻѲűѸʸѤ˸˸ޤˤűѸŪֻϱƤᡤäƸŪʸɤֻȤ뤳Ȥˤʤޤ
˾ܤϡľܡؤդ1˼äƤɤߤС9Ϣܵ hellog furansu_rensai ǾҲ𤷤ƤޤΤǡ⤴Ȥ
ȴϢơheldio Ǥ#1305. Ѹֻˤեαƶ --- ؤդ٤Ϣܵ10ơꤷƤäƤޤΤǡ⤪İ
δ졡ֱѸˤįե졡10Ѹֻˤեαƶסؤդ2025ǯ1桤ҡ2024ǯ122352--53ǡ
1221ˡǯ٤ī㡼ɶǤΥֺ¤9֤ޤϡֱѸ졤ƥꥷƴפꤷơŵؤηݤä16--17νѸܤޤλμ礷ȯŸ˿ä̤ɬפȤʤꡤΥˡ˱٤ƥ䥮ꥷñǤФ줿ΤǤ̤Ȥơŵ˴ŤѸ俷줬ӤƳ졤Ѹä϶γĥ뤲뤳Ȥˤʤޤ
⡤̤ӥ饤¿ˤäޤ꤬Ȥޤֺ¤Ƥmarkmap Ȥ֥ġˤޥɥޥåײƤߤޤʲȤƤɤˡ֤줿ѤˡǤʤϹֺƤָ뵡ȤƤѤ
16--17νѸϡʬѹͥκꡤŵʥƥȥꥷˤºФ졤̤ñ줬Ѹä˼ޤ줿Ǥ롥ƱɽŪʸͤ Shakespeare ʤΤDurkin ˤФηȤΤߤܤȤƤ⡤û֤Υƥͳο ("latinate neologisms") ѸήȤǧȤ
The peak period of the Literary Renaissance was C.1590--1600. The Primary author was Shakespeare who, between 1591 and 1611, introduced no fewer than six hundred latinate neologisms, fifty-three of which occur in Hamlet alone. Many of these became everyday words, e.g. addiction, assassination, compulsive, domineering, obscene, sanctimonious, traditional. (226--27)
Shakespeare ƱŪ¤ϤθƤȤ뤬˽פʤΤϡθοŵ֡ͿȤӤʤΤǤϤʤShakespeare ɽͥ˲ФΤĤŵ줫θüѤδϡ³ˤˤޤɤषĥĤļѤƤäǤ롥Durkin Ϥ³Ƥ롥
After the Renaissance, a vast amount of technical and scientific vocabulary flooded into English from both Greek and Latin, hence words like carnivorous, clitoris, formula, hymen, nucleus. In the next century, Linnaeus [1707--78] introduced numerous biological terms, like chrysanthemums and rhododendron. The Scientific period, which peaked C.1830, featured many Neolatin terms like am(o)eba, bacterium, flagellum. Finally, the modern technical/technological period featured words like floccilation. (227)
Shakespeare Ѹû˾˲̤1ĤȤߤƤ褤
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
ε#5720. little i ϲħ ([2024-12-24-1]) ˰³Jespersen ˤ[i] = פβħ (sound_symbolism) ˴ؤͤꡥ
Jespersen Ʊʸβħθ¿Ƥ뤬Ƭ˶ᤤʬǡħεˤ꤬ʸ2ˤĤơտ⤷Ƥ롥
In giving lists of words in which the [i] sound has the indicated symbolic value, I must at once ask the reader to beware of two possible misconceptions: first, I do not mean to say that the vowel [i] always implies smallness, or that smallness is everywhere indicated by means of that vowel; no language is consistent in that way, and it suffices to mention the words big and small, or the fact that thick and thin have the same vowel, to show how absurd such an idea would be.
Next, I am not speaking of the origin or etymology of the words enumerated: I do not say that they have from the very first taken their origin from a desire to express small things symbolically. It is true that I believe that some of the words mentioned have arisen in that way,---many of our i-words are astonishingly recent---but for many others it is well-known that the vowel i is only a recent development, the words having had some other vowel in former times. What I maintain, then, is simply that there is some association between sound and sense in these cases, however it may have taken its origin, and however late this connexion may be (exactly as I think that we must recognize secondary echoisms). But I am firmly convinced that the fact that a word meaning little or little thing contains the sound [i], has in many, or in most, cases been strongly influential in gaining popular favour for it; the sound has been an inducement to choose and to prefer that particular word, and to drop out of use other words for the same notion, which were not so favoured. In other words, sound-symbolism makes some words more fit to survive and gives them a considerable strength in their struggle for existence. If you want to use some name of an animal for a small child, you will preferably take one with sound symbolism, like kid or chick . . . , rather than bat or pug or slug, though these may in themselves be smaller than the animal chosen. (285--86)
1Ĥϡ[i] = פβħŪɬŪʤΤǤϤʤޤdzŪʤΤˤʤγǧǤ롥2ĤϡβħθƤˤĤơβỌ̇̄δط츻餫餢äΤ˷줿ΤʤȤȤ碌ơŪˤ̻Ūˤ⡤ħμطϴˤˤȤɤޤꡤꤹ붯ϤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤפǤ롥
Ǥ Jespersen ϡѤκǸǤѸȤ鷺⤷Ƥ̤ꡤħˤϸΡŬ¸ (survival of the fittest) Ĺ̤ȳοƤ롥ħϡˤʤ˺ѤƤϤȤߤʤȤǤȡ
Jespersen, O. "Symbolic Value of the Vowel I." Philologica 1 (1922). Reprinted in Linguistica: Selected Papers in English, French and German. Copenhagen: Levin & Munksgaard, 1933. 283--303.
ħ (sound_symbolism) ϡؤǤŪ˼ŪʰƤηˤĤƤϡ#1269. ؤˤ벻ħΰ֤Ť ([2012-10-17-1]) ϤȤϢεǼ夲Ƥ
Τ褦ǡJespersen ϰۿǤ롥1922ǯʸǡѸ䤽¾θˤ [i] βħˤĤǮäݤƤΤʸƬǮ
Sound symbolism plays a greater role in the development of languages than is admitted by most linguists. In this paper I shall attempt to show that the vowel [i], high-front-unround, especially in its narrow or thin form, serves very often to indicate what is small, slight, insignificant, or weak. (283)
[i] ־פȷӤĤ벻ħϹΤƤꡤܥ֥Ǥ#242. phonaesthesia 羮 ([2009-12-25-1]) ǿ줿Jespersen ϡʸΤʤǡ¿ʤ [i] Ρ־פˤĤƥȵƤ
äˤ⤷Τϡ little ȤȤδϢǿ˻פ⤫ֱñˤĤƤͤǤ롥"Semantic and Phonetic Changes" ꤹ7ǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The influence on sound development is first seen in the very word little. OE. lytel shows with its y, that the vowel must originally have been u, and this is found in OSax. luttil, OHG. luzzil; cf. Serb. lud 'little' and OIr. lútu 'little finger' (Falk and Torp); but then the vowel in Goth. leitils (i.e. lītils and ON. lítinn is so difficult to account for on ordinary principles that the NED. in despair thinks that the two words are "radically unconnected". I think we have here an effect of sound symbolism. The transition in E. from y to it of course is regular, being found in innumerable words in which sound symbolism cannot have played any role, but in modern English we have a further slight modification of the sound which tends to make the word more expressive, I refer to the form represented in spelling as "leetle". In Gill's Logonomia (1621, Jiriczek's reprint 48), where he mentions the "particle" tjni (j is his sign for the diphthong in sign) he writes "a lïtle tjni man" with ï (his sign for the vowel in seen), though elsewhere he writes litle with short i. NED. under leetle calls it "a jocular imitation of a hesitating (?) or deliberately emphatic pronunciation of little". Payne mentions from Alabama leetle "with special and prolonged emphasis on the î sound to indicate a very small amount". I suspect that what takes place is just as often a narrowing or thinning of the vowel sound as a real lengthening, just as in Dan. bitte with narrow or thin [i], see above. To the quotations in NED. I add the following: Dickens Mutual Fr. 861 "a leetle spoilt", Wells Tono-B. 1. 92 "some leetle thing", id. War and Fut. 186 "the little aeroplane ... such a leetle thing up there in the night".---It is noteworthy that in the word for the opposite notion, where we should according to the usual sound laws expect the vowel [i] (OE. micel, Sc. mickle, Goth. mikils) we have instead u: much, but this development is not without parallels, see Mod. E. Gr. I. 3. 42. In Dan. dial, mög(el) for the same word the abnormal vowel is generally ascribed to the influence of the labial m; in both forms the movement away from i may have been furthered by sound-symbolic feeling. (301--02)
[i] = פȤħˤĤơlittle 첻ϥݥƥˡе much 첻ϥͥƥȿѲФƤȤԤƶȤȤθ츻ȤδϢDzħΤߤʤ餺ѲưŤȤƤβħͻƤȤޤפʤΤǤϤʤȵդ줿
Jespersen, O. "Symbolic Value of the Vowel I." Philologica 1 (1922). Reprinted in Linguistica: Selected Papers in English, French and German. Copenhagen: Levin & Munksgaard, 1933. 283--303.
ꥷ줬ѸͿŪƶϡƥեΤ٤ȸꤹ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤºݤˤϤ礭äΤΤȤꡤष (word_formation) Ϳƶ礭ȤäۤŬڤ⤷ʤȤ櫓Ϣ (combining_form) ѤʳطϤʣηϡꥷΰʹǤ롥
Durkin (231) ϡѸˤˤ륮ꥷαƶˤĤơ鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Between C5 and C8-9, the Greek liberal arts education was revived, first by the Ostrogoths, later by the Carolingians, and Greek gained special prestige. Writers liberally sprinkled their woks with Greek words, many of which found their way into other languages of Europe, including Old English. Particularly noteworthy are the glossarial poems from Canterbury with words like apoplexis, liturgia, spasmus. Since then, Greek medical doctrine and the terms associated with it became the major part of English medical lexis . . . . More general scientific vocabulary from Greek has mushroomed since C18 . . . .
. . . .
Greek influence on English, then, is restricted to the lexicon, (limited) derivation, and compounding. Words entered English initially through Roman borrowings, then through direct borrowing from Ancient Greek writers, more recently through word formation (combining roots and affixes) in English.
ꥷαѸؤαƶˤϡ3ѥ뤤3ʳäȤޤȤƤ褤
(1) ƥͳơ
(2) ľܥꥷ줫ʶʹߡ
(3) ꥷǡפѤѸǤ¤ʶʹߡä18ʹߡֲʳѸ쿷ŵŪʣ (neo-classical compounds) 뤤ϡֱפȸƤǤ褤
ΥѥˤĤƤ⡤ꥷդ줿ҿ (prestige) ȿǤƳؽѸ¤줬ŪǤ롥ϢȤơʲ hellog ⻲ȡ
#516. ľܤΥꥷѤ15 ([2010-09-25-1])
#552. combining form ([2010-10-31-1])
#616. Ѹβʳظäȯ ([2011-01-03-1])
#617. Ѹ5ʬθä̻ʬۡ ([2011-01-04-1])
#1694. ʳظäˤƥꥷǤ˱ɤͳ ([2013-12-16-1])
#3014. Ѹˤˤ륮ꥷο¸ߴ19 ([2017-07-28-1])
#3013. 19줿ŵŪʣ ([2017-07-27-1])
#3166. ȤƤβʳѸ ([2017-12-27-1])
#3179. ֿŵŪʣפֱפ ([2018-01-09-1])
#3368. ֥ƥϡüѤλȷϩ ([2018-07-17-1])
#4191. ʳѸΰ̣νؤŤˤĤơ ([2020-10-17-1])
#4449. ꥷαѸؤΥѥȡ ([2021-07-02-1])
#5718. ꥷͳμƬϢ ([2024-12-22-1])
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
Durkin (216--19) ˤơѸäꥷͳǤƤ롥 (suffix)Ƭ (prefix)Ϣ (combining_form) ʬơ礿Τ褦ƥե줫μѸΤʤ˺äƤǤ⤢ꡤŪˤϥꥷͳǤ뤳ȤŤƤʤΤޤޤƤΤǤϤʤ
Ρ
-on (plural -a), -ter, -terion, -ma/-mat- (adj. -matic), the family of -ize/-ise (-ist/-ast, -ism, -asm), -ite, -ess, -oid, -isk, -(t)ic, -istic(al), -astic(al)
ΡƬ
a(n)-, amph(i)-, an(a)-, anti-, ap(o)-, cat(a)-/kat(a)-, di(a)-, dys-, a(n)-, end(o)-, exo-, ep(i)-, hyper-, hyp(o)-, met(a)-, par(a)-, peri-, pro-, pros-, syn-/sys-
ΡϢ
acro- "high; of the extremities", agath(o)- "good", all(o)- "other, alternate, distinct", arch- "chief; original", argyr(o)- "silver", aut(o)- "self(-induced); spontaneous", bary-/bar(o)- "heavy; low; internal", brachy- "short", brady- "slow", cac(o)- "bad", chlor(o)- "green; chlorine", chrys(o)- "gold; golden-yellow", cry(o)- "freezing; low-temperature", crypt(o)- "secret; concealed", cyan(o)- "blue", dipl(o)- "twofold, double", dolich(o)- "long", erythr(o)- "red", eu- "good, well", glauc(o)- "bluish-green, grey", gluc(o)- "glucose"/glyc(o)- "sugar; glycerol"/glycy- "sweet", gymn(o)- "naked, bare", heter(o)- "other, different", hol(o)- "whole, entire", homeo- "similar; equal", hom(o)- "same", leuc/k(o)- "white", macro- "(abnormally) large", mega- "huge; very large", megal(o)- "large; grandiose" and -megaly "abnormal enlargement", melan(o)- "black; dark-colored; pigmented", mes(o)- "middle", micr(o)- "(very) small", nano- "one thousand-millionth; extremely small", necr(o)- "dead; death", ne(o)- "new; modified; follower", olig(o)- "few; diminished; retardation", orth(o)- "upright; straight; correct", oxy- "sharp, pointed; keen", pachy- "thick", pan(to)- "all", picr(o)- "bitter", platy- "broad, flat", poikil(o)- "variegated; variable", poly- "much, many", proto- "first", pseud(o)- "false", scler(o)- "hard", soph(o)- and -sophy "skilled; wise", tachy- "swift", tel(e)- "(operating) at a distance", tele(o)- "complete; completely developed", therm(o)- "warm, hot", trachy- "rough"
ѸܥӥΤȤˤɤ
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.

ⶶʴرءˤ Voicy heldio 2٤ˤ錄̤ƤޤǯƲǤƤWorld Englishes ꡤⶶμɮ줿8ϡ֥衼åѤαѸפˤĤơԤˤäȤǤ
#1294. ԤȸWorld Englishes ١ʾƲ2023ǯ --- ⶶȤΥ衼åѤαѸᤰ̡2024ǯ1214ۿ
#1300. ⶶȤΥեȡ --- World Englishes ١ʾƲ2023ǯˤ8ϡ֥衼åѤαѸפᤰäơ2024ǯ1220ۿ
ϡΤäƤ褦ǰճΤʤ衼åѤαѸˤĤơܽ8ϤεҤˤĤġⶶˤ⤤ޤιϰˤ¿ͤʸ졤ʸ̱²ʬۤƤޤΤʤDZѸ줬˥ե (lingua_franca) ȤƵǽƤΤҲŪˤɤΤ褦˰֤ŤƤΤʤѸѼ郎ѤƤΤ͡ʵ䤬ޤˡʤ衼åѤ줬ƱϤǰƤΤǤ礦եȡޤᡤ̤ǤϡΤ褦ʼˤޤ
ҡޤǤWorld Englishes Ϣ hellog heldio ̲ءwe_nyumon ̤ƥƤФȻפޤ
ǸˡեȡǤޤⶶκǶΤñˤ⤴ܤإѸˤɽӡ١ʥʥ˥ǡ2023ǯǤⶶΤӤ̤Τ֤䤤Ƥޤơ꤬Ȥޤ
ԡˡWorld Englishes ١Ʋ2023ǯ
ⶶ ҡإѸˤɽӡ١ʥ˥ǡ2023ǯ

ݺƻͺءˤ Voicy heldio ˤʸˡˤޤĤ̤2ˤ錄äƤϤޤҤ2014ǯ˽Ǥ줿ʸˡѸȤʤ顤ѸˤˤʸˡζŪʻˤĤơԤ˲⤷ƤȤʴǤ2ۿʲ˵Ƥޤ
#1290. ʸˡ --- ݺȤ̡2024ǯ1210ۿ
#1293. ư do ʸˡ --- ݺȤ̡2024ǯ1213ۿ
Ѹ˾塤ƽפʸˡ2Ĥλ㡤ȯ do ˡȯŸˤĤǫ˲⤷Ƥޤ˴ؿäϡܥ֥ article do-periphrasis Υդ줿ɤǤФȻפޤ
嵭ۿǤƤޤݺȤʸˡᤰ heldio ̲ϡˤ1ۿƤޤܥ֥#5674. ݺƻͺȤ --- ʸˡѸ١ʳҡ2014ǯˤ ([2024-11-08-1]) 뤤ľ heldio #1245. ݺƻͺȤΡʸˡ --- ֱѸ˥饤2024פȤ
ޤȤơݺȤ̤ˤä#1298. ݺȤΥեȡǥ֤2024ǯ1218ۿˤϿƤޤϸζŤʤ٤ǤΤǡҤİС
ݺ ƻͺʸˡѸ١ҡ2014ǯ
ѸˤȤäơեŪˡפǤ롥űѸ긽˻ޤǡŪդ礤ڤ줿ȤϤʤˤä⤭ߤϤΤΡեñϾ˱Ѹή³ƤեϱѸˤȤäƿŪΥǤᤤȤäƤ褤
ѸѸۤɤǤϤʤǤեñ¤˱ѸήƤƤ롥OED Ǹȡ20ʹߤΥեѸϡä1000ۤɤ롥ΤʤǤŪ٤ι⤤Τ50ĤۤɵƤߤ褦
micelle (1901), garage (1902), reductase (1902), limousine (1902), austenite (1902), bloc (1903), metro (1904), fuselage (1909), camp (1909), sabotage (1910), ciel (1910), Cubism (1911), Chardonnay (1911), mas (1912), matière (1915), surrealist (1918), collage (1919), adage (1920), bacteriophage (1921), saboteur (1921), hydrolase (1922), bistro (1922), nematic (1923), lipid (1925), exclusivity (1926), infrastructure (1927), surrealism (1927), moderne (1928), montage (1930), anomie (1933), evacuee (1934), Gaullist (1941), microfiche (1950), Annales (1952), chlorpromazine (1952), nouveau (1955), neuroleptic (1958), virion (1959), operon (1960), eukaryote (1961), auteur (1962), non (1963), prokaryote (1963), Art Deco (1966), retro (1972), intertextuality (1973), fractal (1975), endorphin (1976), Prolog (1977), acquis (1979)
ΰˤϡܸäƤ¿졼ॸ֥åȥܥ塤塼ӥࡤɥ͡ӥȥ塼쥢ꥹࡤ塤ޥեå塤ǥȥե饯롤ɥեʤɡ20ˡѸäΤߤʤ餺ܸäˤƤեñɾ
ʤߤ21ˤʤäƤ2002ǯˡ˱Ѹ˼Ѥ줿 parkour ʥѥ륯ˤȤեñˤܤƤĶξ㳲ʪۤƤȯãǡǿ͵徺ΥݡĤǤ롥
128ĹʿˤƱѸ˴ؤѤʵ˲ܥΥå (senbonknock) δŤޤheldio/helwa ΥꥹʡǤߡۥȤ̳ƤꡤŤǤܥΥåļԤǤܥΥå¸Ǥ15̾ξӤݸԤ˽ޤꡤ̤˻˹ͤƤƤä16μˡ䤬80ʬۤɤäƤޤƱʤ줿⤦1ͤΥꥹʡ Grace Ʊ٥ȤؤݤȤ٤ note ֺʿղܥΥå˥ݡƤޤ
줿Ȥˡ֤äĤ֤ܥΥåԤޤȤϰۤʤγ٤ԳѤǤˤѸϻȤޤʿפʸդʬ䤹ʤФʤޤͽۤϤƤΤΡˤȤäƤͽ۰ʾ٤ι⤤Ǥ¿εŤ줿ȤΤǤΤߤʤ餺ؽŪˤ⼨٤䤬Ĥꡤ˻פäƤݤƹͻ뵡Ȥʤޤ
κʿܥΥåΰϽϡ Voicy heldio ۿޤȾʾǡˤȸȾǡˤ2ʬ䤷ơȤƤۿޤϿǡȤɤʹˤȤϤޤƼϤʲˡİؤΤᡤ줿ԥץбʬäޤ
Ⱦ60ʬ #1289. ʿܥΥå (1) --- γѤʵ
(1) 03:12 --- ʤ1Υ one ȽΡ
(2) 08:16 --- ʤɮΤǤΡ
(3) 12:17 --- ʤʸȾʸǰ㤦ʸΡ
(4) 18:31 --- ե٥åȤηϤɤͳǷޤäΡ
(5) 22:13 --- ʤ deer, sheep, fish ʣˤ -s ĤʤΡ
(6) 27:40 --- ʤ c k ƱȯΡ
(7) 32:04 --- ʤ bottle ȯ t ɤޤʤΡ
(8) 36:38 --- ʤ c ϡ֥פȤ֥פɤΤǤ
(9) 41:35 --- ʤ knife k ɤޤʤΤǤ
(10) 45:10 --- ʤѸ줬̸ʤΤǤ
ڸȾ48ʬ #1292. ʿܥΥå (2) --- γѤʵ
(11) 00:55 --- be ư줬˱ is, am, are ȷѤΤϤʤǤ
(12) 08:40 --- ηˤĤơʤ first, second, fifth ѤʷʤΤǤ
(13) 15:32 --- ʸ does Фư -s ʤʤΤϤʤǤ
(14) 22:19 --- Ѹ䥢ե٥åȤïäΤǤ
(15) 27:14 --- ʤ³ that ϾάǤΡ
(16) 33:12 --- ʤ be ưȰưϰ˻ȤʤΤǤ
ʿܥΥå˻äݸԤγ礭ʥԥ졼ޤ餿ƴտ夲ޤ

ɸγҤοܤޤ꤬Ȥޤ
ҤˤֺǿѸءإפ20Ȥ֤Ťǡʸˡ߱ѸˡפκǿŪθޤȤƤޤ300ǤۤɤǡŪˤܳɤǤѸѲŪ˹ͻԡˤȤäơɬȤλͽǤ
ʲܼФƤߤޤ礦̥Ūȹ٤Ѹ줬¤Ǥޤ
I ʸˡˤѲ
1 ʸˡŪȤߤȸѲ
1. ϤˡѸˤλʬ
2. ʸˡŪȤ
3. ʸˡѲȤƤθѲ
2 ѲΥ
1. ʬϤȥѥѲ
2. ʸˡɸ to Ȥ
3. Ѳ
4. ¤ѲưȤ
II Ѹṽ¤Ѳ
3 Ѹṽ¤ưưξü
1. Ϥ
2. űѸ졦Ѹδܸ
3. űѸ졦Ѹṽ¤
4. ưư˭ʰפβ
5. ܼοưưξü
6. ʸˡˤư줫ưؤѲ
7. ޤȤ
4 ֤ȳƼﹽʸѲ
1. Ϥ
2. 칽ʸ
3. ֳʷиԼ칽ʸ
4. ¾ưʸ
5. that
6. ޤȤ
III Ѹ̾ι¤ʬ
5 ¤ʤξüȳʤˤ̾ǧˡѲ
1. Ϥ
2. ʤ˴ؤиŪ¤Ū
3. Ϳ̾ȤʤʸŪ
4. Ϳ̾ǧĤǧˡѲ
5. ޤȤ
6 ̻ʬۤͷΥǽ̻Ū
1. Ϥ
2. Ѹˤ̻ʬ
3. Ū
4. ͷΥ̻ʬۤ˴ؤ̻ŪѲ
5. ̾ȿ̻θ
6. ޤȤ
ܽˤĤƤϡ1211 Voicy heldio ˤ#1291. Ƿ ͵ ˡʸˡȸѲ١ʳҡ2024ǯˡۿǤ⤴Ҳ𤷤Ƥޤܵȹ碌ƤİС
ܽȴϢơҤΡֺǿѸءإפ21 ջҡ δˡʸؤȱѸ˸١ʳҡ2022ǯɤꤤפޤ
Ƿ ͵ ʸˡȸѲ١ҡ2024ǯ
German ʥɥĿ͡ˤʣ Germans Ǥ *Germen ˤϤʤʤ츻Ū -man ʣǤϤʤƱͤ human ʿʹ֡, Ottoman ʥޥȥ륳͡, talisman ʸˤʤɤ⡤-man ϤޤǸ촴ΰǤꡤ츻Ū -man ʣǤϤʤˡʣϵ§Ū - s Ĥ humans, Ottomans, talismans Ȥ롥*humen, *Ottomen, *talismen ȤϤʤʤ
ȼ㴳𤬰ۤʤΤ#707. dragoman ([2011-04-04-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̾ʣǤ롥dragoman ˤϸ츻Ūˤ -man ʣǤϤʤΤΡʣȤƤ dragomans Τߤʤ餺 dragomen Ѥ롥Ԥϰδ㤤뤤ϰʬ (metanalysis) ˴ŤŪˤϵƤƤ
˰ۤʤ륿פ夲 Norman ʣ̾ϡ츻Ūˤ north + -man Ǥꡤ餫 -man ʣǤcf. #1568. Norman, Normandy, Norse ([2013-08-12-1])ˡäơʣ *Normen Ȥʤ뤳Ȥͽۤ뤬ºݤˤΤȤ1Ĥ̾촴ȤƲᤵ褦ˤʤäΤNormans ȤѤƤ
Ȥ Norman θˤҤȤȡĤƤʣȤ Normen ѤƤȤ狼롥OED űѸ줫κǽʸƤߤ褦
OE Þær wæs Harold cyning of Norwegan & Tostig eorl ofslagen, & gerim folces mid heom, ægðer ge Normana ge Englisca, & þa Normen [flugon þa Englis[c]a].
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Tiberius MS. B.i) anno 1066
OE Harold for to Norwegum, Magnus fædera, syððan Magnus dead wæs, & Normen hine underfengon.
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Tiberius MS. B.iv) anno 1049
Ť Normans Τ̤ۤʣä褦ǤϤ롥
c1275 (?a1200) Seoððen comen Normans [c1300 Otho MS. Normains]..and nemneden heo Lundres.
Laȝamon, Brut (Caligula MS.) (1963) 7115
c1325 (c1300) þus was in normannes hond þat lond ibroȝt.
Chronicle of Robert of Gloucester (Caligula MS.) 7498
-man ָ̱츻Ūʣᤰϡۤˤ⤢뤫⤷ʤ
˴ؤ (typology) θŵŪθҲ𤹤롥Whaley (86) Lehmann (1973, 1978a) Ȥʤ "Lehmann's Consituent Order Correlations" ǤƤ롥
| Word Order | Correlation |
| VO | OV |
| Preposition + noun | Noun + preposition |
| Noun + genitive | Genitive + noun |
| Noun + adjective | Adjective + noun |
| Noun + relative clause | Relative clause + noun |
| Sentence-initial question word | Noninitial question word |
| Prefixes | Suffixes |
| Auxiliary verb + main verb | Main verb + auxiliary verb |
| Comparative adjective + standard | Standard + comparative adjective |
| Verb + adverb | Adverb + verb |
| Negative + verb | Verb + negative |
| Subordinator + clause | Clause + subordinator |

1221ڡ 17:30--19:00
ꡧī㡼ɶ
̡饤Υϥ֥åɷ1֤θƨۿ
ߡī㡼֥
ǯ٤ī륷ָֺ츻ŵǤɤѸˡ˰٤ΥڡǽĴ˿ʤǤޤرѸ츻ŵ١ʸҡȤʤ顤ѸûˤɤäƤǤ
1ָ˳֤9Ǥϼ˽Ѹˤƥ줪ӥꥷθŪƶɾޤ16--17νѸϱѹͥλꡤŵؤηݤǤμ礷ȯŸ˿ä̤ɬפȤʤꡤΥˡ˱٤ƥ䥮ꥷñǤФ줿ΤǤ̤Ȥơŵ˴ŤѸ俷줬ӤƳ졤Ѹä϶γĥ뤲뤳Ȥˤʤޤ
ιֺ¤Ǥϡŵ줫μѸ˼ܤλθóѻƤߤȻפޤҳ⤳λˤ⤿餵줿ƥꥷϤΥ⥷ñõƤߤƤ
ܥֺ¤γƲΩƤޤΤǡؤλáԻäˤ餺餴äȤǤޤ8ʬˤĤƤϡơפޥɥޥåפˤޤȤƤޤΤǡʲε
#5625. ī륷ֺ¤1ֱѸ츻ŵڤפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2024-09-20-1])
#5629. ī륷ֺ¤2ֱѸäˤѤפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2024-09-24-1])
#5631. ī륷ֺ¤3ֱñȡ֥ˡ§ספޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2024-09-26-1])
#5639. ī륷ֺ¤4ָαѸ˻ĤűѸκספޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2024-10-04-1])
#5646. ī륷ֺ¤5ֱѸ졤ƥȽвפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2024-10-11-1])
#5650. ī륷ֺ¤6ֱѸ졤θȸפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2024-10-15-1])
#5669. ī륷ֺ¤7ֱѸ졤ե˿פޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2024-11-03-1])
#5704. ī륷ֺ¤8ֱѸ졤ȸήפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2024-12-08-1])
ֺܹ¤ξܺ٤ȤߤɤرѸ츻ŵ١ʸҡϡ˵֤Ĥļ֤Ф¸ޤʴϢդޤΤǡŵʤȤ֤ˤꤢޤˡ

ʰʲ嵭2024/12/17(Tue)
߷ ˧ͺԽ紴ˡرѸ츻ŵٿǡҡ2024ǯ
̾ (noun phrase) ϡȤ˽礬¿ղä졤Ĺʤ뤳Ȥ롥㤨СüˤǤä夲ǤϤ뤬all the other potentially lethal doses of poison that may be administered to humans ʸˡŪǤ롥
Τ褦͡ʽ礬ղäˤϡ̾Ǥ¤ӽ礬ޤäƤ롥Ŭ֤ƤϤʤΤѸε§Fischer (79) "Element order within the NP in PDE" ꤹɽǺܤ褦
| Predeterminer | Determiner | Postdeterminer | Premodifier | Modifier | Head | Postmodifier |
| quantifiers | articles, | quantifiers, | adverbials, | adjectives, | noun, proper name, | prepositional |
| quantifiers, | numerals, specialized | some adjectives | adjuncts | pronoun | phrase, relative | |
| genitives, | adjectives | clause (some | ||||
| demonstratives, | adjectives) | |||||
| possessive/ | (quantifiers?) | |||||
| interrogative/ | ||||||
| relative pronouns | ||||||
| half | the | usual | price | |||
| any | other | potentially | embarrassing | details | ||
| a | pretty | unpleasant | encounter | |||
| both | our | meetings | with the | |||
| chairman | ||||||
| a | decibel | level | that made your | |||
| ears ache | ||||||
| these | two | criminal | activities |
ε#5707. 2Ż <gh> ε ([2024-12-11-1]) ³<gh> ˤƽиˤĤơѸֻˤθŵ路 Scragg (46--47) ˡΤ꤬롥
The use of <h> as a diacritic in <ch> and <sh>, indicating that <c> and <s> have a pronunciation different from that normally expected of those consonantsa, was not new to English when <ch> was introduced from French, for <th> had earlier been used alongside <þ> (cf. footnotes to pp. 2b and 17). Both <ch> in French and <th> in English derive from Latin orthography, use of <h> as a diacritic in Latin being made possible by the disappearance of the sounds represented by <h> from the language in the late classical period. As a result of the establishment in English of diacritic <h> in <ch> and <th>, other consonant groups were formed on the same pattern. The grapheme <gh> has already been discussed (p. 23c). <wh> has a rather different history, for it began in Old English as an initial consonantal combination <hw> corresponding to /xw/. Assimilation of the group to a single voiceless consonant /ʍ/ had taken place by the late Old English period, and Middle English scribes, associating the sequence <hw> for the single phoneme with the use of <h> as a fricative marker in other graphemes, reversed the graphs to <wh>.
English scribes' incorporation into their spelling system of the grapheme <ch>, and the 'consequential' changes which resulted in the creation of <sh> and <wh>, were made possible by their knowledge of Anglo-Norman conventions.
ΰʸΤʤƱؤλȤ꤬뤬ȤȽפʵҤߤĤäΤǡѼԤˤб뤫ǰʲ˻βʸǺܤ롥
a I.e. <h> as a fricative marker, allowing for the fact that <sh> is historically a simplification of <sch>. (fn. 2 to p. 46)
b Latin <th> had always been recognised as an alternative to thorn by English writers; even before the Norman Conquest, foreign names were spelt with either: Elizabeth or Elizabeþ, Thomas or þomas. (fn. 2 to p. 2)
c <ȝ> was also used in Middle English for the two allophones of /j/ which occurred after a vowel: [ç] and [x]. These two sounds gave scribes considerable difficulty in Middle English; among the many graphemes representing them are the Anglo-Norman <s>, the Old English <h>, the new grapheme <ȝ>, and the last two combined as <ȝh>. In the fifteenth century, when the distinction between <ȝ> and <g> became blurred, this combination was written <gh>, and this is the sequence which has survived in a great many words in which [ç] and [x] were once heard, or still are in northern dialects, e.g. high, ought, night, bough. (fn. 2 to p. 23)
ʾꡤ˴Ϣפվȡ̤ꡥ
(1) <th> ϸűѸˤѤ뤳Ȥä
(2) 2Ż <ch> <th> ϤȤϥƥˡͳ褹
(3) <h> ȯʹ (diacritical_mark) ȤѤ褦ˤʤäΤϡŵΥƥ h ̵<h> 줿
(4) 2ʸܤ <h> Ĵ¸2ŻΥѥΥޥֻΤäƤѸ̻μˤꡤ¾ؤ礷
(5) 2ʸܤ <h> 2Żϡh ŪʤΤǡ
<gh> ޤ2Żεȯã˸Ƥ
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
2Ż (digraph) <gh> ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ gh γƵˤƤ2Ż <gh> ˤĤƤϡ줬ɽ魯ȤȤˡѸ˾Ǥ⤤롥ΤʤǤܤ1Ĥ˵꤬롥űѸǤϡѸʹߤŵŪ <gh> Ѥ¿Υǡ<h> 1ʸȤƤѸˤʤȡδĶˤ <h> λѤϽ˿षƤä <gh> <ȝ> (= yogh) ƬƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥<gh> Ϥäɤ褿Τ
Upward and Davidson (182) ˤȡ2Ÿ <gh> ϥΥޥ̻ˤäƤ⤿餵줿ǤȤ
. . . ANorm scribes frequently replaced the OE H with GH: OE niht, ME night; OE brohte, ME broughte 'brought'. (The letter ȝ was also used: niȝt, brouȝte.) The GH represented /x/, which was pronounced [ç] after a front vowel and [x] after a back vowel, as in ME night and broughte respectively (and as also in Modern German). Although, under the influence of Chancery and the printers, this digraph has continued to be written from the ME period to the present day, the sound it represented/represents has undergone many changes.
Υޥֻˤ <ch>, <sh>, <th>, <wh> ʤ2ʸܤ <h> 2ŻλѤǧ롥餹٤ƤѸǸƤۤ¿ѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡ2Ż <gh> ⤳֤ä (cfAnglo-Norman Dictionary) Υޥ줿̻䡤αƶѸμ̻Ѹݤˤ <gh> ȤȤˤʤ롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

οʪǯɽʥӥ奢ǡˡ٤ѥѥįƤ롥2020ǯ˱ѸǽǤ줿 Timelines of Everone ΤǡäƤdzڤˤοʪǯɽŵǤ롥
Ƭˤۤɶᤤ pp. 10--11 ˡֿˡפꤹ븫Υեեå롥龮ФΤߤȴФƤߤ롥˾15βŪʽӽФƤ롥
| 250ǯ | ǽƻ |
| 80ǯ | |
| 40ǯ | Ǽ |
| 44000ǯ | ƶɲ |
| 4ǯ | ǡд |
| 2ǯ | ƫ |
| 15000ǯ | Τ |
| 14000ǯ | ȥҥ |
| 12000ǯ | |
| 9000ǯ | ° |
| 8009ǯ | Ի |
| 3400ǯ | ʸ |
| 1500ǯ | β |
| 1750ǯ | |
| 1990ǯ | ԥ塼 |
¤ءˤˡƱؤdz֤ƤҲμȤˤޤ꤬Ȥޤ˼ֳγʤɤνǡ֤ܥΥå (senbonknock) Ԥޤꤵ2ͤǤΥ饤Τ褦ܥΥåȤʤޤ䤬ӽФ80ʬۤɤΥƥʥåȤʤޤ
μȤΰϽ Voicy heldio ǼϿޤΤȾȸȾʬơۿޤʲ˳Ƽ䤪бץʬäޤ
Ⱦ48ʬ #1284. Ѹ˴ؤѤʵ䡡ܥΥå at --- Part 1
(1) Chapter 2, 03:55 --- ȯΥȤʤΤǤĤϤޤʸˤ륢Ȥ¸߰յϡ
(2) Chapter 3, 04:58 --- ʤܸˤϡֻס͡סֲפʤ1;Τ¿θΤǤ
(3) Chapter 4, 00:03 --- ܸˤ褦ϱѸˤ¸ߤΤǤʡּפء
(4) Chapter 4, 04:40 --- ʤ you ˤϡ֤ʤפȡ֤ʤפξΰ̣ΤǤ
(5) Chapter 5, 02:57 --- ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤǤ
(6) Chapter 5, 01:26 --- 㤦²ʤΤ˻ƤϤޤʸζ̡θοء
ڸȾ35ʬ #1287. ؤܥΥå with (2)
(7) Chapter 2, 00:05 --- ǽ2Ĥθʹ֤ïǤ
(8) Chapter 2, 02:57 --- ζ̸뤳Ȥϼ¸ǽǤ
(9) Chapter 3, 03:35 --- ǽ˱Ѹ줬ܤäƤȤɤΤ褦ǤΤǤ
(10) Chapter 3, 02:51 --- ѸΤ褦ʤΤ¾ˤ⤢ΤǤ
(11) Chapter 4, 00:46 --- ܸΥХȷɸΤ褦ʤΤϱѸˤ⤢ޤ
(12) Chapter 5, 00:00 --- ʤѸˤ say, speak, tell ʤɡָפ̣ñ줬¿ΤǤ
ȤȤ⡤ꤵȤ heldio ۿ٥ȤȤʤޤ꤬Ȥޤ
1130ˡǯ٤ī㡼ɶǤΥֺ¤8֤ޤϡֱѸ졤ȸήפꤷơѸˤǤϤޤܤ뤳ȤΤʤȤθܿˤĤޤˤ90ʬιֵͤơޤɤ䤷Ƥޤʤˤʤäơ줬۹ͫǤ뤳Ȥ狼ޤ̤ӥ饤ǡ¿ˤä꤬Ȥޤ
ֺ¤Ƥmarkmap Ȥ֥ġˤޥɥޥåײƤߤޤʲȤƤɤˡ֤줿ѤˡǤʤϹֺƤָ뵡ȤƤѤ
¿θǡ̾ˤޤĤʸˡƥ (category) ¸ߤ롥ɤθǤ̾ο¿Τ餫δʬहȤȤ̸Ū˹ѻ롥Ǥʸˡ (gender) ŵŪ̾쥫ƥǤꡤܸǤϽ줬Ȥʤ롥
θ̾쥫ƥȤ Genders and Classifiers: A Cross-Linguistic Typology 롥Aikhenvald (1) ϡƬ̾쥫ƥΤ褦ƳƤ롥
A noun may refer to a man, a woman, an animal, or an inanimate object of varied shape, size, and function, or have abstract reference. Noun categorization devices vary in their expression, and the contexts in which they occur. Large sets of numeral classifiers in South-East Asian languages occur with number words and quantifying expressions. Small highly grammaticalized noun classes and gender systems in Indo-European and African languages, and the languages of the Americas are expressed with agreement markers on adjectives, demonstratives, and also on the noun itself. Further means include noun classifiers, classifiers in possessive constructions, verbal classifiers, and two lesser-known types: locative and deictic classifiers.
All noun categorization devices are based on the universal semantic parameters of humanness, animacy, sex, shape, form, consistency, orientation in space, and function. They may reflect the value of the object, and the speaker's attitude to it. Their meanings mirror socio-cultural parameters and beliefs, and may change if the society changes. Noun categorization devices offer a window into how speakers conceptualize the world they live in.
Τ褦˽Ҥ٤ǡAikhenvald (2--6) ϡδ顤7̾쥫ƥμʤƤ롥
I. Gender systems
II. Numeral classifiers
III. Noun classifiers
IV. Possessive classifiers
V. Verbal classifiers
VI. Locative classifiers
VII. Deictic classifiers
ĸʸˡ I ˡܸν줬 II °뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. "Noun Categorization Devices: A Cross-Linguistic Perspective." Chapter 1 of Genders and Classifiers: A Cross-Linguistic Typology. Ed. Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald and Elena I. Mihas. Oxford: OUP, 2019.
θˤƤ⡤ạ̈Ѳ (semantic_change) ϤƤդ줿פθѲǤꡤ˵äƤ롥ΤȤϡ#1955. ̣ѲΰŪ ([2014-09-03-1]) Ǥ̤Ǥ롥űѸñˤ⡤¿ΰ̣ѲäƤȤ
äǤűѸñΰ̣ѲʸŪʸڤǤ뤫ɤǤ롥⤽űѸθ¸Ͼʤᡤñΰ̣ѲűѸ˵äΤɤΤΤ˽ʬʾʤȤ¿ޤ̣ѲΤ˵äȸ뤿ˤϡѲѲθγơνŵȤʤƥȤŪ夷Ƥ뤳ȤθǤʤФʤʤˤϥƥǯǯᤰ꤬ĤޤȤ
Τ褦ʻǸűѸñΰ̣ѲˤϺΤǤ⤢ٸ뤳ȤϤ롥ŵ "semantic change" ι (p. 415) ϢսѤ롥
One area of vocabulary in which semantic change clearly took place during the Old English period is religious terminology. God 'God', heofon 'heaven', and helle 'hell', for example, necessarily adopted new meanings when they were applied to Christian rather than pagan concepts. Semantic change can also take the form of the development of a metaphorical meaning. In Old English this sometimes took place under the influence of Latin. Examples include tunge 'tongue', which was extended to mean 'language', possibly modelled on Latin lingua, and wit(e)ga 'wise man', used for 'prophet', perhaps influenced by Latin propheta. After the establishment of the Danelaw, OE terms also underwent semantic development under the influence of their Old Norse cognates. Modern English bloom 'flower' takes its form from either Old English bloma 'ingot of iron' or Old Norse blom 'flower', but its sense is clearly from Old Norse. In Old English, plog (ModE plough) was used for the measure of land which a yoke of oxen could plough in a day; its use with reference to an agricultural implement developed under the influence of Old Norse plogr. Similarly, Old English eorl 'man, warrior' (ModE earl) developed the sense 'chief, ruler of a shire' under the influence of Old Norse jarl.
ƥΥꥹȶѸαƶˤ̣ѲťΥɸбαƶˤ̣Ѳ夲Ƥ뤬˸ؤǤ̣ (semantic_borrowing) ȤƸڤ뤳Ȥ¿פΤΤǤ롥¾ˤñΰ̣ʬäƤꡤĸܿλʤɤǤСΤ褦ʰ̣ѲεǽˤʤȤȤ˸ؤʸؤˡΥȥԥåȤƤ⤪⤷
Lapidge, Michael, John Blair, Simon Keynes, and Donald Scragg, eds. The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1999.
եꥫäѸ "South African English" ᤰϡˤäƤꡤͿ졦Ѽ¿ͤǰǤϹԤʤܥ֥Ǥϡ#343. եꥫ¹αѸѡ ([2010-04-05-1]) ϤȤơsouth_africa εǼ夲Ƥ
ϡեꥫѸüȯƱѼħŤäҲ𤷤3ʸȤեꥫѸ餷ñʣʤ2ĤΥꥹȤ롥
ڡBaugh and Cable (312--13) ꡡ
aardvarkʥĥ֥ˡapartheidʿͼΥ١ѥȥإȡˡveld(t)ʹȤˡcommandeerħʼˡcommandoʻ̱Ϸġˡtrekʵ֤ιˡbiltongʱ̣ڤ괳ˡbraaivleisʥС٥塼ѡƥˡdongaʶëˡgoggaʺˡkoeksistersʤҤͤɡʥġˡkopjeʾ֡ˡmealiesʥȥˡouʤġˡˡspruitʾˡstoepʥ٥ˡveldskoenʳ
ڡCrystal (English, 40) Crystal (Encyclopedio, 377) ꡡ
advocate ˡ۸Ρˡbad friends ä礦ۤɤǤϤʤμԤˡbakkie ʷڥȥåˡbell äˡbioscope ʱDzˡboer ʥܡ͡ˡbottle store ʼˡbutchery ˡcamp ϡˡdinges ʲȤΡˡdorp ¼ˡeland ʥˡfundi ȡˡgnu ʥ̡ˡhomeland ʥۡɡѥȥإˤäߤ줿ͽ̱Τμˡimpala ʥѥˡindaba ʲġˡindri ʥɥˡkloof ʶëˡkraal ¼ˡlekker ɤˡmamba ʥޥСˡputu ʥѥΤˡrand ʥɡեꥫ¹̲ߡˡrobot ʿ浡ˡshebeen ʤ⤰ιͼˡspoor ʤˡspringbok ʥץܥåˡarvey ʸ塨= afternoonˡtse-tse ʥĥĥХˡverkrampte Ķݼԡˤƴ¤ʡˡvoorskot ߤ
ʤեꥫѸθäˤĤƤϡƱѼǤ OED Ȥ٤ A Dictionary of South African English on Historical Principles (OUP, 1996) ܤŵȤʤ롥
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP, 1995. 2nd ed. 2003.
98ˤ khelfʷѸ˥եˤμŤ heldio 12ۿֱѸ˥饤2024»ܤޤإᥤȡ= helwa ꥹʡˤϤβ˻Υ饤˻ä줿櫓ǤΥ٥ȸ塤إᥤȤΡhelסʱѸ˳ưhelkatsuˤؤ夬äƤޤ
1Ĥθ줬Ҳ𤹤ط Helvillian 〜ϥѸˡǤ֥ͭإᥤȤˤǡnote ˸Ƥޤ28ȯԤǤޤǤϴ2024ǯ1028ˤ22024ǯ1128ˤƤޤ note եƤФȻפޤ


Helvillian ϡإᥤȤѸ˷ϥ֥ƥĤѤäƸ륦֥ޥǤýȤޤƤꡤǿ2ǤϡɤȤ»ܤ֥إᥤȤäƤɤʿ͡εɮƤޤ¾ä줿ɽԽ嵭ʤɤ⸫Ǥ
ֱѸˤδ֤ˡפåȡ˷ǤƤȤƤϡΤ褦餷֤ͭhelʤƤԽѰ Grace Lilimi MISATO (Galois) umisio ˲ƴդޤ
ϴ桦2γơˤĤƤֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ˤưʲۿǤ⤴⤷ƤޤΤǡҤİ줫Ϥ˱礷ƤȻפޤ
heldio #1282. Helvillian 2椬ޤ --- إᥤȤˤ뼫Ūhel2024ǯ1029ۿ
helwa ֡ڱѸˤ #204۽ˡHelvillian ϴ2024ǯ1029ۿ
heldio #1248. Helvillian ϴ --- helwa ꥹʡ֤ͭˤ륦֥ޥ2024ǯ123ۿ
Poutsma (878) ˡ1;ʣ̤̾ˡȤ royal_we ꤬夲Ƥ롥ѸȤƤ "Plural of Majesty or Plural of Dignity" ѤƤ롥
As in Dutch, the plural of the first person is sometimes used by sovereigns, especially in public utterances, when speaking of themselves.
About this Plural of Majesty or Plural of Dignity, as it is commonly called, Sweet (N. E. Gr., §2095) observes: "We see the beginnings of this usage in Old-English laws, where the king speaks of himself as iċ, and then goes on to say wē bebēodath .. 'we command ..', the wē being meant to include the witan or councillors." Compare also Kellner, Hist. Outl. of Eng. Synt., §276; Onions, Advanced Eng. Synt., §221.
We were not born to sue, but to command. Rich. II, ii, 1, 196.
Fair and noble hostess, | We are your guest to-night. Macb., I, 6, 24.
Should our host murder us on this spot --- us, his king and his kinsman, ...our fate will be little lightened, but, on the contrary greatly aggravatated, by your stirring, Scott, Quent. Durw., Ch. XXVII, 354.
The Queen said ...: "We are this day fortunate --- we enjoy the company of our amiable hostess at an unusual hour. Id., Abbot, Ch. XXI, 225.
Note. This practice seems to have become unusual or extinct in the personal utterances of sovereigns to their audiences, having been preserved only in public instruments.
Thus King George V in his reply to the address of the Corporation of Bombay uses I, etc.:
You have rightly said that I am no stranger among you [etc.]. Times, No. 1823, 974b.
Similarly in his Address on the occasion of the opening of the Coronation Durbar:
It is with genuine feelings of thankfulness and satisfaction that I stand here to-day among you [etc.]. Id., No. 1824, 1001d.
But in the instrument announcing the fact that the seat of the Government of India will be transferred from Calcutta to Delhi, we find we, etc.: We are pleased to announce to Our People [etc.]. Ib.
20ƬޤǤ royal we ϻ¾äƤȤǧǤ롥Ȥ뤳Ȥˤ衤ŪˡΧʸˤŪˡȤƤǤꡤ쥸ϤƸꤵƤȤ狼롥
Poutsma, H. A Grammar of Late Modern English. Part II, The Parts of Speech, 1B. Groningen: P. Noordhoff, 1916.
ε#5697. royal we ϡַ weפǤϤʤּҲŪʿʣס ([2024-12-01-1]) ˰³ַ we (royal_we) ܤ롥ѸȤƤ "plural of majesty", "plural of inequality" ʤɤѤƤ뤬1;ʣ̾ƱˡؤƤ롥
Mustanoja (124) ϡ"plural of majesty" ȤѸȤʤ顤ƥɤꥷˤޤǤΤܤεƤ롥ξǡѸˤˤŤŵȤơѸ֥إ3פǤ˸ڤƤ뤳Ȥܤ
PLURAL OF MAJESTY. --- Another variety of the sociative plural (pluralis societatis) exists as the plural of majesty (pluralis majestatis), likewise characterised by the use of the pronoun of the first person plural for the first person singular. The plural of majesty originates in a living sovereign's habit of thinking of himself as an embodiment of the whole community. As the use of the plural becomes a mere convention, the original significance of this plurality tends to disappear. The plural of majesty is found in the imperial decrees of the later Roman Empire and in the letters of the early Roman bishops, but it can be traced to even earlier times, to Greek syntactical usage (cf. H. Zilliacus, Selbstgefühl und Servilität: Studien zum unregelmâssigen Numerusgebrauch im Griechischen, SSF-GHL XVIII, 3, Helsinki 1953). The plural of majesty is extensively used in medieval Latin. In OE it does not seem to be attested. OE royal charters, for example, have the singular (ic Offa þurh Cristes gyfe Myrcena kining; ic Æþelbald cincg, etc.). The plural of majesty begins to be used in ME. A typical ME example is the following quotation from the English proclamation of Henry III (18 Oct., 1258), a characteristic beginning of a royal charter: --- Henry, thurȝ Gode fultume king of Engleneloande, Lhoaverd on Yrloande, Duk on Normandi, on Aquitaine, and Eorl on Anjow, send igretinge to alle hise holde, ilærde ond ileawede, on Huntendoneschire: thæt witen ȝe alle þæt we willen and unnen þæt . . ..
"the English proclamation of Henry III (18 Oct., 1258)" ʡ֥إ3סˤǤˤĤơʥۥɤȻפϤ롥#5696. royal we θűѸ줫㡩 ([2024-11-30-1]) κǸǿ줿褦ˡǤμ¤ royal we ˡɤϲΤǤ롥θʸˤĤƤϡ#2561. The Proclamation of Henry III ([2016-05-01-1]) ȡ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
ַ֡ we (royal_we) դˤĤĴ٤Ƥ롥Jespersen äƤߤȡַ weפʤּ̡ҲŪʿʣ ("the plural of social inequality") ȤѸ줬Ƥ2;̾ˤ롤 "T/V distinction" (t/v_distinction) ȴϢŤ we ݤˤϡΤѸ줫⤷ʤ
4.13. Third, we have what might be called the plural of social inequality, by which one person either speaks of himself or addresses another person in the plural. We thus have in the first person the 'plural of majesty', by which kings and similarly exalted persons say we instead of I. The verbal form used with this we is the plural, but in the 'emphatic' pronoun with self a distinction is made between the normal plural ourselves and the half-singular ourself. Thus frequently in Sh, e.g. Hml I. 2.122 Be as our selfe in Denmarke | Mcb III. 1.46 We will keepe our selfe till supper time alone. (In R2 III. 2.127, where modern editions have ourselves, the folio has our selfe; but in R2 I. 1,16, F1 has our selues). Outside the plural of majesty, Sh has twice our selfe (Meas. II. 2.126, LL IV. 3.314) 'in general maxims' (Sh-lex.).
. . . .
In the second person the plural of social inequality becomes a plural of politeness or deference: ye, you instead of thou, thee; this has now become universal without regard to social position . . . .
The use of us instead of me in Scotland and Ireland (Murray D 188, Joyce Ir 81) and also in familiar speech elsewhere may have some connexion with the plural of social inequality, though its origin is not clear to me.
٥ȤѸǤϤʤ⤷ʤҲŪʿˤ־פؤΤˡַʣ ("polite plural") ʤɤνѸϤ뤤ϡǤϤ魯뤫⤷ʤΤǡäȿȤʤ־ʣפʤɡ䡤ꤷơäȤȤʤѸȤơַʣפǤ褤Τ⤷ʤ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 2. Vol. 1. 2nd ed. Heidelberg: C. Winter's Universitätsbuchhandlung, 1922.
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