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2018-04-30 Mon

#3290. եꥫθѸ [africa][official_language][language_planning][map]

ε#3289. Swaziland eSwatini ˹̾ѹ ([2018-04-29-1]) ǡܿͤˤȤäߤȻפ륢եꥫ1夲򥢥եꥫΤ˹ƤߤƤ⡤ϤߤȤȤǤϤʤܥ֥Ǥ⡤#2472. եꥫαѸ ([2016-02-02-1]) ʤɤ񤤤ƤեꥫΰŪ˼夫äȻפϥեꥫθѸˤĤƾҲ𤹤뤳Ȥˤ
Ethnologue ˤ2000ǯǤĴˤСեꥫˤ2058줬ѤƤȤϡθ6,80930%Ǥʤʤߤ˥32%1̤Ǥꡤ3̰ʲʿϰ19%̥ꥫ15%衼åѤ3%³ˡեꥫϥ衼åѤο̱ϻۤäƤˤη̤ȤƤȤ櫓ե󥹸Ѹ줬̤ȤݤäƸ뤬θѸʣǤ롥Ѹ줬ñ줬ʣʣξ硤θϤʤΩˤ뤫¤ˤä͡Ǥ롥⤽ѸˤäɤƤ⤢롥ʲϡ1998ǯΥǡ˴Ť2002ǯλ (218--19) ˤƹϰθѸΰǤ롥󤬸Ťǽ⤢Τǡ㤨2011ǯΩäƤʤʤɡˡ̤ϳάȤ򤵤줿  *  *

[ӥѸϰ衡]

른ꥢ (Algeria)
ץ (Egypt)
ӥ (Libya)
⡼꥿˥ (Mauritania)
å (Morocco)
(Sudan)
˥ (Tunisia)

[ݥȥѸϰ衡]

󥴥 (Angola)
ܥ٥ (Capo Verde)
˥ӥ (Guinea-Bissau)
⥶ӡ (Mozambique)
ȡᡦץ󥷥 (São Tom Príncipe)

[ڥѸϰ衡]

ʥ (Canary Islands)
ƻ˥ (Equatorial Guinea)

[ե󥹸Ѹϰ衡]

٥˥ (Benin)
֥륭ʥե (Burkina Faso)
󥴶¹ (Republic of Congo)
ܥ (Gabon)
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ޥ (Mali)
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ȡ (Togo)
̱綦¹ (Democratic Republic of Congo)
ͥ (Senegal)

[ѸѸϰ衡]

ӥ (Gambia)
(Ghana)
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쥪 (Sierra Leone)
(Uganda)
ӥ (Zambia)
Х֥ (Zimbabwe)

[եꥫѸϰ衡]

(Seychelles)롦쥪롦ե (Seychelles Creole French)

[ʣѸѸϰʥӥˡ]

ޥꥢ (Somalia)ӥܥޥ (Somali)
ȥꥢ (Eritrea)ӥܱѸܥƥ˥ (Tigrinya)

[ʣѸϰʥե󥹸ˡ]

֥ (Burundi)ե󥹸ܥ󥸸 (Rundi)
եꥫ (Central African Republic)ե󥹸ܥ󥴸 (Sango)
ޥ (Madagascar)ե󥹸ܥޥ饬 (Malagasy)
(Rwanda)ե󥹸ܱѸܥ (Rwanda)

[ʣѸϰʱѸˡ]

ܥĥ (Botswana)Ѹܥĥʸ (Tswana)
ԥ (Ethiopia)Ѹܥϥ (Amharic)14
˥ (Kenya)Ѹܥҥ (Swahili)
쥽 (Lesotho)Ѹܥ쥽ȸ (Sotho)
ޥ饦 (Malawi)Ѹܥ (Chewa)
եꥫ¹ (South Africa)Ѹܥեꥫ󥹸 (Afrikaans)9Ĥ
兩 (Swaziland)Ѹܥƥ (Swati)
󥶥˥ (Tanzania)Ѹܥҥ

[ѸȤޤޤʤʣѸϰ衡]

롼 (Cameroon)Ѹܥե󥹸
(Chad)ե󥹸ܥӥ
(Comoros)ե󥹸ܥӥ
֥ (Djibouti)ӥܥե󥹸

ſΡ9ϡ2000θ줬äΦեꥫˤѡסϸӾˡθ¾Ҳܡ١ǡ2002ǯ217--24ǡ
ԡˡؿ񥢥եꥫˡǡ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2018ǯ

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2018-04-29 Sun

#3289. Swaziland eSwatini ˹̾ѹ [map][official_language][history][esl]

եꥫեꥫ¹ȥ⥶ӡ˰Ϥޤ줿Φ Swaziland ʥ兩ɡˤ (King Mswati III) ȯĤˤꡤ̾ eSwatini ʥƥˡˤѤ뤳ȤˤʤäȤBBCε򻲾ȡˡ
ιϡ֥եꥫΥפȤΤ⸶ǡ͸130ͤʤ롥͸90%ХȥϤΥ兩²ǡ兩ʥƥ; Swazi, SwatiˤäѸϥ兩ȤȤ˱Ѹ줬ѤƤ롥19ꡤꥹΥ׿̱ϤܡͤΰϤ줾ݸäܡ1902ǯ˥ꥹ̳ΤȤʤäǤŪ֤졤񲦤¸³1960ǯΥեꥫΩ˻ɷ1968ǯ˥兩ɲȤΩ֥ե2ĺΩȤʤä1986ǯѼ褤Фơॹƥ3¨̤зߤĤĸߤ˻롥Ϣˮ˲Ƥʡ#1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1])ˡŪˤؤΰ¸٤⤫äΩ衤кѤȯŸ¸٤㤯ʤäƤȤHIVΨ⤤ʤɿƤǤ⤢롥

Map of Swaziland

ѸȤδطǤСѸ줬Ѹ1ĤȤƺѤƤΤǡESLǤ롥#2472. եꥫαѸ ([2016-02-02-1]) Ǽ褦ˡѸѤ͸5ͤۤɤȿפƤ롥αѸѼϡ#1919. ѸγȻ˴ؤ4Ĥ crossings ([2014-07-29-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤESL EFL ŪʡѼȤ롥ˤĤƤϡEthnologue Swaziland 򻲾ȡ
ޤιȤˤĤƤϡBBC Swaziland country profile Swaziland chronological profile ʤɤ򻲾ȡ
Ϣοٹեꥫ¹αѸˤĤƤϡ#343. եꥫ¹αѸѡ ([2010-04-05-1])#407. եꥫ¹ Afrikaans ([2010-06-08-1])#1703. եꥫο̱ˤȹ ([2013-12-25-1]) ɤ

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2018-04-28 Sat

#3288. restaurant ȯαѸ첽 [french][loan_word][pronunciation][spelling_pronunciation][spelling_pronunciation][spelling_pronunciation_gap]

restaurant <au> ʬȯ줺2ȤʤΤϤʤȤʲ˼褦ˡñˤ¿¿ͤȯꡤ<au> ʬۣ첻 /ə/ ȤƼ¸3ȯ̤ˤ롥Ĥޤꡤ/ˈrɛstrɒnt/ /ˈrɛstərɒnt/ ⤢롥
ֲ첻ϡꥸʥΥե󥹸Ǥ /ɔ/ Ƥ첻ȯ뤬ѸǤ19ˤθ줬Ѥ줿餫顤岽줿 /ə/ ȯƤȻפ롥Ƭȸˤ줾12֤ΤʤСֲϼ岻Ȥʤꡤ첻ϼ첻ȤʤϤμ岽ʤСüȤȤˤʤ롥
θȯɤ줬㤷Τϡ¤ϤֲȤ⡤ˤƤʤΤǤ롥LPD ȯɽ򸫤Ƥߤ褦

Pronunciation of

첻μ̤Ѱۤ⤵뤳Ȥʤ顤ɡƤ뤫ݤͭɡ /ŋ/ տ魯뤫ݤ/t/ ¸Ƥ뤫ݤᤰäơѰۤǧ롥ɽΥȤˤ褦ˡꥹѸ1973ǯޤʹߤǤ /-rɒnt/ ¿ȤʤäƤƤ褦ǤꡤǯΥȥɤȲ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥
ŪˤߤСθ줬Ѥ줿ϥꥸʥΥե󥹸ȯ򿿻 /t/ ʤɡ첻ȯƤȤȤ˱Ѹ첽ȯؤȿܤƤȤ롥ޤѸŪɡ첻ѸŪͭɡ /ŋ/ ֤졤ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) Ȥ /t/ ȯ⸽ƤΤȯȯ֤줿ȤΤΤǤϤʤȯϤʤ¸³ȯȤξѤ߽ŤʤäƤ򤹤٤Ǥ롥̤ȤơѤƤȯߡΩƤȤ櫓
ޤȤСֲˤˤ衤ե󥹸θ鼡ȱѸ첽Ѱۤ䤷ƤȤȤǤ롥ŪˤĤƤ OED ܤΤǡʲ˰ѤƤ

Pronunciation of

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2018-04-27 Fri

#3287. äλع¤ [tagalog][lexicology][lexical_stratification]

Ѹäܸäλع¤ˤĤơ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) #335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1]) ϤȤơ#2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥ󥹴Υƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1]) ĥä¿εǼ夲Ƥ
եԥǺǤ⹭ä륿Tagalog; ̾ Pilipinoˤˤ⡤ѸܸΤΤȴˤӤ뻰ع¤Τäطʤˤϡ#1589. եԥαѸ ([2013-09-02-1])#1593. եԥαѸ (2) ([2013-09-06-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Υڥ䥢ꥫˤۤˤ롥äβءءؤΤϡ줾쥿ˡڥ졤Ѹñ췲Ǥ롥ϸ (70) Ѥ褦

ǡλŹ¤˿٤ϥθäˤϻʤʸΥθáڥϤθáѸϤθáˤ뤳ȤǤ롥򼨤Τˡɽˡ󤷤Ƥ礬롥ȤСñ̤50ڥ򼨤Ȥˤϡlimampung piso ʥˡsingkwenta pesos ʥڥˡfifty pesos ʱѸˤΤ٤ƤɽǽǤꡤԾǤϡɤɽ⽽ʬ򤵤롥ɤ򤹤뤫ˤäޤäƤ
ǡܸηϤͤƤߤ褦ܸθäϡ¸졽졽줫ΩäƤ롥ʤ궯ʥʥǤ뤬եԥǤϡΥ졽ڥ졽Ѹθäϡ¸Τ褦ʵǽ̤Ƥ롥Ĥޤ kumain ʿ٤ uminom ʰˤΤ褦ʴܸǤ롥ڥθäϡڥ˼줿ҲȿˡΧƥ˴ؤ줬¿ܸǤδΤ褦Ư򤷤Ƥ롥abogado ۸Ρˡmunisipyo ʻԡˤʤɤθäǤ롥ѸϸŪ١ǰ򼨤ܡʳصѡӥͥȡڤ˴Ϣä¿ܸˤ볰롥㤨Сmiting ʥߡƥ󥰡ˡweyter ʥˡkabinet աˤʤɤǤ롥
Υ졤ڥ졤ѸȤƱե٥åȤѤƤΤǡܸ٤СߤεΥϾʤܸǤϡҤ餬ʡ¸ˡʴˡʡʳˤȡ̡ɽˡꡤߤΰ㤤ΩäƤơ񤭸դξݱʤˡߤΰ㤤ռƤޤ


ѤκǸǽҤ٤Ƥ뤳ȤϡѸäˤ뻰ع¤ˤĤƤ롥ѸǤʸϾ˥ޥ󡦥ե٥åȤΤߤǤ뤫顤ܤǤθζ̤ܸξ٤ʤ
Ѹ졤ܸ졤θäδ֤Ӥ뻰ع¤ǧȤϤäƤ⡤εϡʬۡϤ줾ȼΤΤθĴСΤ褦ʸäγع¤ϤٸΤ⤷ʤΤ褦¿¸ߤȤϻפʤŪðۤǤ򤷤Ƥ

ϸ Ӿ3ϡեԥιˡ줫եԥθءסϸӾˡθ¾Ҳܡ١ǡ2002ǯ65--97ǡ

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2018-04-26 Thu

#3286. ĹˤˤѸۤæơ3 [linguistic_imperialism]

Ѹۤ˹Ҥ1͡ĹˤϡرѸۤȤȤФʿ٤ΤʤǡŪʼȤߤȤơ(1) Ѹǡ(2) Ѹ춵̵(3) Ѥε̳3Ƥ󵯤Ƥ (192--204) ʲ󤷤褦

(1) ֱѸǡƳDZѸۤ
֥ȡӥǡפȤݶͻǤȯۤơݥߥ˥ʤɤѤ뤹٤ƤαѸˤĤƲǤȤƤǤ롥ä˱Ѹ񤫤ѸؤαѸѤФơʸǤ졤Żҥ᡼Ǥ졤äդǤֱѸǡפݤ롥ѸǤˤ줿ϡȿΤ¾ݥߥ˥ʿã뤿Ѥ롥ѸѤؤΤ餤뵡Ѹ˻ߤ򤫤ȴԤ롥

(2) Ѹ춵̵ˤ٤Ǥ
ߡѸؽѤϳؽԻǤ롥ΤȤΤ褦˻פƤ뤬ʤȤϤʤѸؽäˤǤפΤϡѸȱѸüԤǤ롥ߥ˥󶯼ԤǤϲפƤΤ顤ߥ˥ԤǤѸؽԤˤפԸΤڤǤ롥षֱѸۤˤפФǤܤΰ̣ޤơѸ񡤱ѸüԤϱѸ򶵤뤳Ȥ̤ưڷкŪפʤȤŪˤ٤Ǥסġp. 201ˡפˡѸüԤϥܥƥDZѸ򶵤ѸؽԤϱѸ춵̵Ǽ٤Ǥ롥

(3) Ѥε̳
ݥߥ˥ˤơï⤬Ѥ뤳Ȥ̳ŤȤƤǤ롥٤ƤοͤʬǤʤȤȤˤäơϥǥåפʿȤȯۤǤ롥ˤꥳߥ˥󤬤ޤʣˤϡбФ褤ݥߥ˥Ǥϡï⤬ȤȤQԤϤСθŪʿϷڸ

Ƥϼ¸ǽȤϲ꤬¿ȤΤȿƤɤ߼ꤿȤϡĤκˤ롤Ѹ⤿餷ƤθŪʿؤζڶȿȯǤ롥ѸȽˤĤƤϡʲε⻲ȡ

#3010. ָο̱ϲܤ̵ۤФʹϤʤס ([2017-07-24-1])
#2458. ܸˡرѸ첽϶̱٤첽Τ ([2016-01-19-1])
#2306. ʰ鹧ˡرѸγǡ٤ȱѸȽ ([2015-08-20-1])
#1194. ¼ɤαѸѤȱѸˡ ([2012-08-03-1])

ˡرѸۤȤȤФʿ١ؽDz2006ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-02-14-1]

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2018-04-25 Wed

#3285. chivalry θƬҲ [pronunciation][french][loan_word][consonant][digraph]

ֵƻפ̣ chivalry /ˈʃɪvəlri/ Τ褦˸Ƭ̵ԹŸ໤ /ʃ/ äȯ롥ϰ츫򤷤ȯǤ롥ȤΤϡñϥե󥹸줫μѸǤꡤ1300ǯ Kyng Alysaunder "He schipeth into Libie, With al his faire chivalrie." (l. 1495) Τ褦˸뤳ȤͤơΥե󥹸θ¤˻ /ʧ/ äȯƤϤ
Τ˸Ѹ <ch> ϺǤŵŪˤ˻ /ʧ/ бȤĤĤ⡤໤ /ʃ/ ؤб褷ʤ#2201. ǤȤ Princess Charlotte ([2015-05-07-1]) εǿ줿褦ˡե󥹼Ѹ˴ؤ¤ꡤ<ch> λҲɽ魯ϡ褽ѤλˤäƷޤ롥εǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤̤Ǥ롥

Ѹˤե󥹼Ѹ <ch> ֤Τ˻ [ʧ] 򼨤໤ [ʃ] 򼨤ȤϡФмѻ򸫶ˤΤѤ롥㤨 chance, charge, chief, check, chair, charm, chase, cheer, chant ϤѸ˼Ѥ줿ΤǤꡤchampagne, chef, chic, chute, chaise, chicanery, charade, chasseur, chassis ϤѸäΤǤ롥


ĤޤꡤϲȤСѸ chivalry Ѹ˼Ѥ줿Ǥ뤫顤鸽ߤޤ˻ /ʧ/ ³ϤǤͽۤˤ⤫餺षѸμѸǤ뤫Τ褦໤ /ʃ/ 򼨤Τ̯ȤȤOED Ǥ⡤ /ʧɪvəlri/ ȯ⤢ȼʤ⡤"As a Middle English word the proper historical pronunciation is with /ʧ-/; but the more frequent pronunciation at present is with /ʃ-/, as if the word had been received from modern French." ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
رѸ츻ŵ٤ˤȼΤ褦ʻ𤬤ä褦

θ1600ǯ˰٤줿䤬18CȾΥޥ󥹺Ȥߤ餻άME Ǥ OF Ʊ /ʧ-/ ȯ줿Ǥ ModF αƶˤ /ʃ-/ դĤʤʤߤ OF Ǥ ch- 13Cδ֤ /ʧ/ /ʃ/ ѲƤˡ


ǡְ٤줿פȤ뤬OED Ϥ¤ꡤ䤨Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤεƻؤβŪʴؿʤθȤɤ餻뤤ϺƼѤ줿Ȥڽ񤭤ꤹСߤդĤǤ˻椬򤱤롥ȤСchivalry Ȥϡ/ʃ/ 򼨤椨ˡḽŪѤθȤơͤˤȤäƥޥåʤۤɤŪʸȸΤ⤷ʤ
2Ż <ch> ˤĤƤϡ#3251. <chi> ϡ֥פ֥פ֥פ֥ҡפ ([2018-03-22-1]), #1893. إܥ󼰥޻ <sh>, <ch>, <j> ϤɤΤ餤Ѹ ([2014-07-03-1]) ε⻲ȡϢơ#2049. <sh> Ȥΰֻˡ ([2014-12-06-1]) ɤ

Referrer (Inside): [2018-05-07-1]

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2018-04-24 Tue

#3284. be ưü [be][inflection][inflection][clitic][verb][auxiliary_verb][sobokunagimon]

be ư줬üưǤ뤳ȤϡƸޤǤʤ褦˻פ롥¾ưˤʤ褦ʣʶޤ򼨤Ūˤϼ¤ˤؤƤưºݤˡ#3279. ǯٽΡѤʵפ3 ([2018-04-19-1]) 3ܤˤ󤲤褦ˡbe ư¿αѸؽԤ˷㤷֤ʤפ
be ư˼ٹˤä Crystal The Story of Be ν (p. xi--xii) Ǥϡbe ưü󤵤Ƥ롥

(1) be ưϡѸ¾Τư¿ͤѲġwalk ʤ walk, walks, walked, walked 4ΰۤʤ򼨤go ʤ go, goes, going, gone, went 5ΰۤʤ򼨤be Ǥ be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been 8ब̤롥ŪˤСbe ¿ܤΤۤɤǤ롥
(2) ٤Ƥ¾ưǤϡ߷ˤͭɸη֤ĤΤ3;ñ -s Τߤbe ưǤϾ嵭Τ褦123;ΤΤ줾ˤưۤʤ֤򼨤
(3) be ǤϡΤȯ (be, been) ȶΤʤȯ (bi, bin, bn) ̤롥
(4) ܸŪ̾³ơtwas (< it was), wast (< was it) Τ褦ͻ礹롥ޤyou're, I'm, aren't, weren't ʤɤν򼨤Ʊͤν򼨤Τϡۤ have do ΤߤǤ (ex. hasn't, don't)
(5) be ư3Ĥ˰ۤʤʸˡǽġ1ܤˡ¸ߤפ̣ưȤơ2ܤ˿ʹԷư֤ưȤơ3ܤϢ (copula) ȤƤǤ롥¾ưǤޤ¿̤ʵǽͭΤϤʤ

Crystal ᤯ϡǡ

It is thus hardly surprising to find that, over the past 1,500 years, be has developed a wide range of meanings and uses, and a wider range of variant forms than any other English verb. It is the second most frequent word in English, after the. If any verb deserves its own story, it is this one.


Crystal, David. The Story of Be. Oxford: OUP, 2017.

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2018-04-23 Mon

#3283. ˸ءīоȸإ꡼ȯŸԡϤǤޤ [notice][hel_education][historical_linguistics]

3ˡƤƤ ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإ꡼ȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯǤޤīҽŹξҲڡɤ
ܤϡоȸؤơޤȤ꡼ΰȤơ˸ءˤȤ8̾μɮԤˤäƽ񤫤줿ΤǤѸоȤ˸ؤλäȤΤϡޤǤ˰ճȤʤäǤؤʤɤDZѸˤֵƤƤ⡤Ϣܸ˰Ĥʤ뤫ɤdzȿѤΤиƤΤǡоȤλä˸ؤɬפȻפäƤޤ

does_spelling_matter_front_cover
ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإ꡼ȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ200ǡISBN: 97842545163333400ߡ̡ˡ



ܼܽϡʲ̤ȤʤäƤޤ



1ϡܸ˳ [塡]

1.1ܸȤ
1.2ܸˤλ
1.3ܸˤλʬ
1.4ʸˡɽ˳

2ϡѸ˳ѡ[ϡ]

2.1ʱѸˤˤȤ
2.2Ѹη449ǯ˳ѡ
2.3ѸˤλʬȤκ
2.4űѸλ711νޤǡˡħα
2.5Ѹλ1115ޤǡˡħα
2.6ѸȼҲɸȸƤ٤Τи԰
2.716?17
2.818?21ѡʶ?

3ϡѲ []

3.1Ѳ
3.2Ѹˤ벻Ѳ
3.3ܸβηϤȲѲ
3.4Ѳо

4ϡΧ []

4.1ѻη
4.2űѸƬѸƬη
4.3ѸΤޤޤʵӱη
4.4Ѹʹߤεӱ
4.5̵ȼͳˤޤ
4.6ѻβ˴ؤ
4.7ܸ귿λ
4.8ս٤λ
4.9սٰʸλ
4.10ΧܼȻʤѲ
4.11¾

5ϡηϤ [δ]

5.1񵭸Ȳ
5.2ηϤ
5.3ηϤѲ

6ϡѲä [ů]

6.1ܾϤι
6.2֡ä˴ؤŪʳǰ
6.3äѲ
6.4ѸηѲä
6.5ܸηѲä
6.6Ѹܸ

7ϡѲ [ͥ]

7.1Ѳ
7.2ѸˤѲ
7.3ܸˤѲ

8ϡ̣ѲѲ [δ]

8.1̣Ọ̇̄Ѳ
8.2̣Ѳ෿
8.3̣Ѳװ
8.4̣ѲλȤ
8.5Ѳ

9ϡѲΥᥫ˥ [ݺƻͺ]

9.1ѲװŪ
9.2ʸˡ
9.3Ѳȸʲ



ϡ5ϡηϤ (pp. 89--105) ȡ8ϡ̣ѲѲ (pp. 151--69) ɮޤä5ϤѸνηϤ˴ؤоȸŪȻפޤΤǡؿΤϤҤɤ

ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإ꡼ȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2018-04-22 Sun

#3282. The Parsed Corpus of Middle English Poetry (PCMEP) [corpus][me][hc][ppcme][laeme][link]

Ѹαʸ򽸤᤿쥿դѥߤĤThe Parsed Corpus of Middle English Poetry Ի Richard Zimmermann εĤѤǤ롥
ʳǡƱѥ41Υƥȡ160,432줫ʤäƤʥƥȡꥹȤˡСϰϤ c. 1150--1420ǯʤ Helsinki Corpus ζʬǤ M1, M2, M3 Ǥ롥쥿 Penn Parsed Corpora of Historical English ƱˡդƤꡤCorpus Search 2 ʤɤΥġѤƲϤǤ롥
Related Corpora ΥڡξͭѡˤѸ˴ؤƼ拾ѥǡ١ؤΥ󥯤򡤰ʲˤĥĤƤ

The Penn-Parsed Corpus of Middle English
The Corpus of Middle English Prose and Verse
The Innsbruck Corpus of Middle English Prose
A Parsed Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English (P-LAEME)
Database of Middle English Romance

ƥĥդäƤ뤦ˡʥץȤʪƤΤʤȤ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-01-15-1]

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2018-04-21 Sat

#3281. Hopper and Traugott ˤʸˡܼ [grammaticalisation][terminology][language_change]

Hopper and Traugott ˤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ªҲ𤷤ƤʸˡȤȤϸѲΤѥؤȤ⤢СΤ褦ʸѲ򸦵椹ȤߤΤȤؤȤ⤢롥ޤϡHopper and Traugott (231) ꡤդ顥

. . . we have considered grammaticalization as (i) a research framework for studying the relationships between lexical, constructional, and grammatical material in language, whether diachronically or synchronically, whether in particular languages or cross-linguistically, and (ii) a term referring to the change whereby lexical items and constructions come in certain linguistic contexts to serve grammatical functions and, once grammaticalized, continue to develop new grammatical functions.


(ii) ΰ̣ǤʸˡˤĤơHopper and Traugott (231) ϡܼäʹδ֤ˤ̣θĤǤȤߤƤ롥ʸˡϡΤ褦˥ߥ˥δŪʥݥȤΩӤƤ뤬椨ˡŪʴǧθŪʴޤ߹ळȤˤʤꡤե졼ȤȤˤʤΤ

We have argued that grammaticalization can be thought of as the result of the continual negotiation of meaning that speakers and hearers engage in in the context of discourse production and perception. The potential for grammaticalization lies in speakers attempting to be maximally informative, and in hearers attempting to be maximally cooperative, depending on the needs of the particular situation. Negotiating meaning may involve innovation, specifically, pragmatic, semantic, and ultimately grammatical enrichment. This means that grammaticalization is conceptualized as a type of change not limited to early child language acquisition or to perception (as is assumed in some models of language change), but due also to adult acquisition and to production.


μιʸˡ̥Ϥ1ĤȤäƤ褤

Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2018-04-20 Fri

#3280. ꥫˤ̱²ŪԴƤŪط [sociolinguistics][aave][ame_bre][ame][linguistic_ideology][ethnic_group]

Ѹ礿ȤƤıξǤϡˤɸ (standard) Τªۤʤ롥ꥹǤɸŪȯǤ RP ¸ߤ뤬ꥫǤ RP ҿäͣȯ¸ߤʤޤɸɸ̤뼴ϡꥹǤϳ (class) Ȥ뤬ꥫǤ̱² (ethnic group) ˤȤ٤ΰ㤤ξˤȼҲȿǤƤ롥ʲ18ʹߤΥꥫξ Milroy and Milroy (157--58) ˽äάҤ褦
ꥫ̱²Ȥ顤㤨 AAVE Τ褦ʱѸѼФ봲Ƥ礤ƤΤˤŪطʤ롥18ޤǤϡꥫˤŪƤ¸ߤȤȤƤüԸĿͤȤƤ¿Ѥλ¤äΤޤ1ˡ18Υꥫˤϡ̱ϻۤͭŪʸȤơѸΤۤ˥ڥե󥹸¸ߤƤեǤϡषѸ⥹ڥѤΤۤĹäե󥹸Ѥϰ⤢ä2ˡο̱Ԥϥꥫ轻̱ν˿Ƥаޤꡤۤ˥ɥĿͿ̱ԤΥߥ˥ƥʤɤ⤢äꥫˤŪʱѸͥϵʤäȤƤ⡤¿ѤϼҲŪ˴򤵤оݤʤɤǤϤʤä
Ȥ19ʤˤĤ¿ѤФ봲Ƥ졤ѸнŻۤɽФƤˤϡȾФΥɡå夬1ĤηȤʤäƤ롥Ͱ̱̤äȤˤꡤӳۤޤ줿1848ǯΥꥫˤᥭΤʻ⡤ڥüԤФѸüԤͥۤ浯̱²ŪԴƤĹΤ˰äơ1878ǯˤϥե˥ΡֱѸ쥪꡼פνȤʤäΤ褦ԴƤʼҲĬΤʤǡ轻̱νڻ뤵褦ˤʤäǸˡǰפˤ⡤ʤ餳̱²ŪԴƤνפطʤʤƤ롥θ塤Ĭϡ2021ˤѤƤ롥
Milroy and Milroy (160) ΤޤȤ˼򷹤褦

In the US, bitter divisions created by slavery and the Civil War shaped a language ideology focused on racial discrimination rather than on the class distinctions characteristic of an older monarchical society like Britain which continue to shape language attitudes. Also salient in the US was perceived pressure from large numbers of non-English speakers, from both long-established communities (such as Spanish speakers in the South-West) and successive waves of immigrants. This gave rise in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to policies and attitudes which promoted Anglo-conformity. To this day these are embodied in a version of the standard language ideology which has the effect of discriminating against speakers of languages other than English --- again an ideology quite different from that characteristic of Britain.


Milroy, Lesley and James Milroy. Authority in Language: Investigating Language Prescription and Standardisation. 4th ed. London and New York: Routledge, 2012.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2018-04-19 Thu

#3279. ǯٽΡѤʵפ3 [sobokunagimon][alphabet][numeral][be]

ǯ٤ؤDZѸ˳ιֵϤޤäĤˤϱѸΡѤʵפƤ뤬Ф¿γʣ䤬󤻤롥褽ܥ֥ΤɤDzäꤷƤΤǡȤ櫓ܤդ3ĤΡѤʵפˤĤơñʥȤդϢ֥ؤΥ󥯤ĥäƤ

ΡѤʵ1ϡѸΥե٥åȤϤʤ A, B, C . . . Z Ȥ¤ӽˤʤäƤΤ

ǤСѸ줬ƥ줫饢ե٥åȤڤꤿȤˡ褽¤ӽä顥ơΥƥϥꥷ줫饢ե٥åȤڤꤿȤˡ褽¤ӽä顥ˡΥꥷϡ³ƤȡǽŪˤϵ1700ǯ̥ɽΥե٥åȤ褽¤ӽä顤ȤȤˤʤ롥ǤϡθΥե٥åȤˤ¤ӽϤȤСʤʤդ᤬ʲε򻲾ȡ

#2105. Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤ ([2015-01-31-1])
#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])
#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1])
#1832. ꥷե٥åȤʸ̾ (1) ([2014-05-03-1])
#1833. ꥷե٥åȤʸ̾ (2) ([2014-05-04-1]

ΡѤʵ2ϡʤ eleven, twelve ϡ*oneteen, *twoteen ʤɤǤϤʤΤ

񤷤Ѹ°륲ޥɤˤ12ˡäȤͿ롥12ˡηϤȡ˥ꥹȶȤȤˤ⤿餵줿ȹͤ10ˡηϤͤ緿οηϤǤäȤΤ˴ؤƤŪʻǤϤ뤬ʲε򻲾ȡ

#2286. űѸ hundseofontig (seventy), hundeahtatig (eighty), etc. ([2015-07-31-1])
#2304. űѸ hundseofontig (seventy), hundeahtatig (eighty), etc. (2) ([2015-08-18-1])
#2473. ե󥹸ˤߤ20ˡλ ([2016-02-03-1])
#2477. Ѹˤߤ20ˡλ ([2016-02-07-1])
#2491. ե󥹸ˤߤ20ˡε ([2016-02-21-1])
#2474. ˤθס ([2016-02-04-1])

ΡѤʵ3ϡʤ be ư is, am, are ۤ͡ʷȤʬʤФʤʤΤ

űѸǤ be ư˸¤餺̤ư줬ʸˡỤ̄Ū˱ưۤʤ˳ѤʤФʤʤäˤˤƤΤ褦ʳѤ˼졤ߤ˻롥ĶٸǤ be ư˸¤äƤϡŤѤʤ褯ݤƤ롥äơѤʵѸŪʴѥե졼ȡ֤ʤ be ưʳǤ͡ʷüƤޤäΤפȤʤ롥ʲ򻲾ȡ

#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1])
#2601. ʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤ ([2016-06-10-1])
碌ơرѸΡ֤ʤפ롡ϤƤαѸˡΡ4.2ᡡʤ If I were a bird ȤʤΤפ⻲

[ | ѥڡ ]

2018-04-18 Wed

#3278. Ҳˤ뤤ϡֿʽСάפδαѸ˻ʬ [periodisation][linguistic_imperialism]

ε#3277. ֱѸפΥɡ ([2018-04-17-1]) ˰³ѸȽΩ줫Ѹˤ¼˵ꡤѸΡֿʽСάפȤ顤ѸˤʬƤˤĤƹͤƤߤ¼ (30) ˤС1350ǯ򳫻ȤѸˤ5˶ʬ롥

 줾λħ
11350?1600αѸ줬ϥ󥰥ɤΡָѸסʡֹȸסˤȤʤ
21600?1800硹Ū˿ʽФ
31800?1900ŪʤȯϤ
41900?1945ե󥹸äơס֡Ρ˶̸פϰ̤Ω
51945?̸ֶŪʤȿ̱ϼŪʤ䤷ʤ


ƴζڤǯˤĤơ¼ (30--31) ˤäոƤ1λϤޤϡ󥰥ɤΥޥλۤæƤ14ȾФꤵƤ롥θ塤󥰥ɤΩȤȤʤƥ塼īγϡ1603ǯˤä2ذܤȤȯۤޤ󥰥ɿͤǤѸ˼ϤΤ16Ǥcf. #2580. Ѹιռʳ ([2016-05-20-1]
2ϻǰפɽ볤ǰפȤʤꡤ󥰥ɤ˭ˤʤäƤǤ롥̱ϼذܹԤǡȤ櫓ħŪʤΤ7ǯ (1756--63) ˲ȥȥӡϡȤƤαѸߤγȤߤƤ롥
3ϡȳ̿ʤǤ1800ǯصŪʳȤƤ褦ȲѤ٤ˡꥹŪʤȯ100ǯ֤򥫥СƤ롥ɸѸ줬̱ȤθȤƶ餵褦ˤʤꡤɸѸϷڻ뤵˻ä
4ϡ֤褤㲽褤ΤʤѸ줬礭ȴФƤ20Ⱦ򥫥СƤ롥ƸȤϥꥹ饢ꥫؤȰܹԤѸϥե󥹸򲡤Τϰ̤롥ˤϥե󥹸Τߤǽ񤫤Ƥݾ󤬡٥륵 (1919) Ǥϥե󥹸ΤۤѸȤ褦ˤʤꡤ˥亮ȥ (1921) 뤵줿ϡ˾ƱѸΤߤǽ񤫤줿
2νλ1945ǯʹߤ5ϡŪ̱²λǤϤ뤬DZѸ줬ȤƤޤޤ٤ᡤƸȤʤä

¼ ɡؤʤֱѸפʤΤѸҲ١ҡ2004ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-02-14-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2018-04-17 Tue

#3277. ֱѸפΥ [linguistic_imperialism][link][hel_education][language_equality]

ܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤̾˿Ƥ뤬ѸȽΩ줫鸽ߤαѸ¤Ҥ1ͤ¼ɤ롥2004ǯ˽Ǥ줿ؤʤֱѸפʤΤѸҲ٤Ρ֤ޤ夨ơرѸ٤Ȥϲפˤơ¼ϡֱѸפɤ߲򤯤ΥɤȤơʲ17󤲤Ƥ (13)

1. ط
2. ۤ
3. Ѹ컿ʱѸˤȹ
4. ܤˤ˱Ѹŷ
5. 층¿
6. 󥰥Ρ濴ȡȤƤΡִط
7. ̱ϼʶ
8. ο̱ϼ
9. ο̱ϲ
10. ǰ
11. ¾Դ
12. ȤФοȿβ
13. Ѹ׼
14.
15. ŪʿȼҲкŪʿ
16. ѸȱѸ˽
17. Ծ츶

ơ1ĤΥɤ󤹤СּҲŪԸˡפȤ¼Ω줬褯ʬ륭ɤ¤Ǥ뤬¿ΥɤˤѸŪˤȤǰɽ路ƤϽפǤ롥äȤСϱѸ˾ΥɤǤ⤢ΤѸ˸桦ϤФƲ󶡤Ǥ뤫ܤ˸礦٤귲Ǥ롥
¼αѸʻˡ˴ѤˤĤƤϡʲε⻲ȡ

#1067. Ѹȸܸθüѡ ([2012-03-29-1])
#1072. ѸϸȤäˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ ([2012-04-03-1])
#1073. Ѹ줬¾άƤѥ ([2012-04-04-1])
#1194. ¼ɤαѸѤȱѸˡ ([2012-08-03-1])
#1606. Ѹ캹̡ѸƸ ([2013-09-19-1])

¼ ɡؤʤֱѸפʤΤѸҲ١ҡ2004ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-02-14-1] [2018-04-18-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2018-04-16 Mon

#3276. Churchill We Shall Fight on the Beaches [popular_passage][lexicology][lexical_stratification]

إ󥹥ȥ󡦥㡼롿ҥȥ顼ߤäˡ١ʸ Darkest HourˤѤ˹Ԥäǥߡޤ Gary Oldman ͥޤܿͤ԰칰᤬ᥤå׾ޤޤ󥱥륯襤뤳Ȥˤʤ륤ꥹ Winston Churchill ΡХɥζǺ֤äʤǤ롥ܺ٤ϾʤDzǤϤͭ̾ We Shall Fight on the Beaches αΥ󤬺Ƹ롥1940ǯ64βˤǤ롥ʲˡκǸʬžܤ褦ŵˡDzǤϤʤʪβϡʤɤ YouTube ǻİǤ롥

I have, myself, full confidence that if all do their duty, if nothing is neglected, and if the best arrangements are made, as they are being made, we shall prove ourselves once again able to defend our Island home, to ride out the storm of war, and to outlive the menace of tyranny, if necessary for years, if necessary alone. At any rate, that is what we are going to try to do. That is the resolve of His Majesty's Government --- every man of them. That is the will of Parliament and the nation. The British Empire and the French Republic, linked together in their cause and in their need, will defend to the death their native soil, aiding each other like good comrades to the utmost of their strength. Even though large tracts of Europe and many old and famous States have fallen or may fall into the grip of the Gestapo and all the odious apparatus of Nazi rule, we shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender, and even if, which I do not for a moment believe, this Island or a large part of it were subjugated and starving, then our Empire beyond the seas, armed and guarded by the British Fleet, would carry on the struggle, until, in God's good time, the New World, with all its power and might, steps forth to the rescue and the liberation of the old.


αѸáʻˡˤδߤȡ饤ޥå we shall fight on the beaches ΤѤƤäͱѸǤ뤳Ȥ߷ΡرѸˡ (pp. 48--50) ǿƤ롥βս˥ե󥹸ƥͳθä˭٤˿򤼤Ƥ顤ꥹ̱ˤۤɼʤä⤷ʤˤѤ⤷ʤʡѤȤ櫓
ѸäμȳˤĤƤϡ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) #2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥ󥹴Υƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1]) εۤlexical_stratification ν򻲾ȡ

߷ ⡡رѸˡ١ҡӡ2008ǯ.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-08-09-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2018-04-15 Sun

#3275. ա wassail [be][etymology][oe][bible][imperative][old_norse]

4ϿεȤȤǡꡥwassail /ˈwɒseɪl, ˈwɑːsl/ Ȥϡ̾Ȥơ֡ʼ˥ꥹޥΡ˽ˤμפưȤơּ򤹤롨ǽˤפ̣롥ˤϡϤʤ be ư̿ŪޤƤCrystal 21 򻲾ȡˡ
űѸǤδդΰϡ꤬ñξˤ wes hal "(you (sg.)) be in good health"꤬ʣξˤ wesað hale "(you (pl.)) be in good health" ȸäwes wesað ϡߤǤϻȤƤʤ be ưΰ wesan 2;̿ʤ줾ñʣˤǤcf. #2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1]hal(e) ϡѸǡַʡ򹯤ʡפɽ魯 whole hale θűѸǤꡤСפȤƤӤб hail ȤƱǤcf. #1783. whole <w> ([2014-03-15-1])ˡűѸΥȥʡǤϡLuke 1.28 ŷȤޥꥢФ Hal wes ðu Ȱս꤬롥
ѸǤ wesan be ư̿ϾüƤäδդɽ wassail ȤƸ경֤Ĥäʤwassail Ф֤ΰϡdrinkhail Ǥ롥
ťΥɸˤƱɽ ves heill ꡤѸɽθ츻ȤƤϤषθťΥɸαƶ礭Ȥ뤬ߤ wassail ϤˤŪʥꥹδդλȤΤƤ롥

Crystal, David. The Story of Be. Oxford: OUP, 2017.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-10-09-1] [2019-10-04-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2018-04-14 Sat

#3274. äդȽ񤭸 (5) [media][writing][punctuation][prosody][linguistics][paralinguistics][link]

äդȽ񤭸դϸ2ǥ줾ͭΡ̣ŪʥǥХ¸ߤ롥Ѹ˴ؤΤȤơStubbs (117) Ĥ󤷤ƤΤǡMilroy and Milroy (117--18) ͳǼ

Speech (conversation): intonation, pitch, stress, rhythm, speed of utterance, pausing, silences, variation in loudness; other paralinguistic features, including aspiration, laughter, voice quality; timing, including simultaneous speech; co-occurrence with proxemic and kinesic signals; availability of physical context.

Writing (printed material): spacing between words; punctuation, including parentheses; typography, including style of typeface italicization, underlining, upper and lower case; capitalization to indicate sentence beginnings and propoer nouns; inverted commas, for instance to indicate that a term is being used critically (Chimpanzees' 'language' is. . . .); graphics, including lines, shapes, borders, diagrams, tables; abbreviations; logograms, for example, &; layout, including paragraphing, spacing, margination, pagination, footnotes, headings and sub-headings; permanence and therefore availability of the co-text.


Τ褦ʥǥХΥꥹȤϡξǥоȤݤˤؤͭѤǤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤μоȤ¿εǼ夲ƤʤΤǡ礿Τ򻲹ͤΤᡤʲ˼Ƥ

#230. äȤФȽ񤭤ȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1])
#748. äդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-05-15-1])
#849. äդȽ񤭸 (2) ([2011-08-24-1])
#1001. äȤФȽ񤭤Ȥ (3) ([2012-01-23-1])
#1655. ɤΤܤɤΤ ([2013-11-07-1])
#1665. äȤФȽ񤭤Ȥ (4) ([2013-11-17-1])
#1829. 񤭸եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])
#2301. äդȽ񤭸դĤʤڥȥ ([2015-08-15-1])

Milroy, Lesley and James Milroy. Authority in Language: Investigating Language Prescription and Standardisation. 4th ed. London and New York: Routledge, 2012.
Stubbs, M. Language and Literacy: The Sociolinguistics of Reading and Writing. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2018-04-13 Fri

#3273. Lehman ˤʸˡμ١6 [grammaticalisation][category][tense][future][prototype]

̻ŪǤ춦ŪǤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ˤ硤ꤢƤ㤬ɤ١ʸˡפ餷ΤʸˡŪפʤΤȽǤबɬפǤ롥Τ褦ʴꤹ뤳ȤϡʸˡͿ뤳Ȥˤۤʤ餺麤ʲǤ뤳ȤؤʤΤ褦ʴࡤʤѥ᡼ȤƤϡLehmann ƤŵŪʤΤȤƤ롥ϤΤΡȤƽפǤ롥Hopper and Traugott (31) Lehmann Υѥ᡼Τ褯ޤȤޤäƤΤǡѤ褦Ϣطμ (paradigm) 3طμ (syntagm) 3Ǥ롥

   Of relevance on the paradigmatic axis are:
   1. the "weight" or size of an element (Lehmann refers to "signs"); weight may be phonological (Lat. ille 'that' has more phonological weight than the French article le that derives from it) or semantic (the motion verb go is thought to be semantically weightier than the future marker go) --- "Grammaticalization rips off the lexical features until only the grammatical features are left" (1995: 129);
   2. the degree to which an element enters into a cohesive set or paradigm; e.g., Latin tense is paradigmatically cohesive whereas English tense is not (contrast the Latin with its translation in amo 'I love,' amabo 'I will love,' amavi 'I have loved');
   3. the freedom with which an element may be selected; in Swahili if a clause is transitive, an object marker must be obligatorily expressed in the verb (given certain semantic constraints), whereas none is required in English.
   Of relevance on the syntagmatic axis are:
   4. the scope or structural size of a construction; periphrasis, as in Lat. scribere habeo 'write:INF have:1stSg', is structurally longer and weightier and larger than inflection, as in Ital. scriverò, 'I shall write';
   5. the degree of bonding between elements in a construction (there is a scale from clause to word to morpheme to affix boundary, 1995: 154); the degree of bonding is greater in the case of inflection than in that of periphrasis;
   6. the degree to which elements of a construction may be moved around; in earlier Latin scribere habeo and habeo scribere could occur in either order, but in later Latin this order became fixed, which allowed the word boundaries to be erased.


Ѹʸˡݤ˾Ȥ餷Ƥߤ褦㤨СѸˡư will ˤ̤פȯãϤɤΤ餤ʸˡŪ#2317. Ѹˤ̤ȯã ([2015-08-31-1])#2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ ([2015-05-14-1]) 褦ˡˡư will ȯãʸˡŵ1ĤȹͤƤ뤬嵭2鼨̤ꡤѸ will ˤ̤פϢطδ顤ۤ cohesive ȤϤʤ褦ˤפ졤ɤޤǻȤʸˡƥ꡼ȤưΤ䤬Ĥ롥󡤤 Yes/No ǤϤʤ٤ǤꡤץȥŪ򤹤ɬפϤ6ĤΥѥ᡼򤹤٤ʻʸˡפȤƤޤȡ¿ȤƤޤȤˤʤ롥

Lehmann, Christian. Thoughts on Grammaticalization. Munich: Lincom Europa, 1995.
Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.

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2018-04-12 Thu

#3272. ʸˡ2ĤΥᥫ˥ [metaphor][metonymy][analogy][reanalysis][syntax][grammaticalisation][language_change][auxiliary_verb][future][tense]

ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ŵȤơ̤ɽ魯ư be going to ȯã (cf. #417. ʸˡȤϡ ([2010-06-18-1])#2106.ֶʸˡȡֹʸˡ ([2015-02-01-1])#2575. Ѳΰ ([2016-05-15-1]) ) λѤơʸˡޤ̣ŪѲ2Ĥμ˱äơĤޤ2ĤΥᥫ˥ˤäȯʹԤ뤳Ȥ򼨤ΤHopper and Traugott (93) Ǥ롥2ĤΥᥫ˥Ȥϡsyntagm, reanalysis, metonymy åȤǹᥫ˥ȡparadigm, analogy, metaphor ʤᥫ˥Ǥ롥ʲοޤ򻲾ȡ

          --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Syntagmatic axis
                                                                                 Mechanism: reanalysis
                                                                                                 |
          Stage I          be                  going            [to visit Bill]                  |
                           PROG                Vdir             [Purp. clause]                   |
                                                                                                 |
          Stage II         [be going to]       visit Bill                                        |
                           TNS                 Vact                                              |
             (by syntactic reanalysis/metonymy)                                                  |
                                                                                                 |
          Stage III        [be going to]       like Bill                                         |
                           TNS                 V                                                 |
             (by analogy/metaphor)                                                               |
                                                                                     Paradigmatic axis
                                                                                    Mechanism: analogy

Stage I ʸˡξ֤ǡbe going ϤޤǡֹԤäƤפȤ̤ΰ̣ʤŪˡ to visit Bill ղäƤȲᤵʳǤ롥
Stage II ˤơɽطμ (syntagm) ˱äƺʬ (reanalysis) 롥ܤɤδ֤ǤκʬϤʤΤǡβ˥ȥ˥ߡ (metonymy) θƯƤȹͤ롥ơbe going to ϡ䤳ΤޤȤޤˤä̤ȤɸʸˡŪǤȲᤵ˻롥
Stage II ˤƤϡޤ visit Τ褦ʹ԰٤ΰ̣äư췲դʤä be going to ʸ¾ư췲褦˳硦ȯŸƤСŬϰϤưäȤϢطμ (paradigm) ˱ä (analogy) ˤäƳȤäƤβ˥᥿ե (metaphor) ͿƤ뤳Ȥ򤷤䤹ʸˡϡΤ褦1ᥫ˥ˤ곫Ϥ졤2ᥫ˥ˤ礷ĤĿʹԤȤȤ狼롥
ʸˡˤ2ĤΥᥫ˥बŪ˺ѤƤȤ嵭Hopper and Traugott (93) εҤˤƤ

In summary, metonymic and metaphorical inferencing are comlementary, not mutually exclusive, processes at the pragmatic level that result from the dual mechanisms of reanalysis linked with the cognitive process of metonymy, and analogy linked with the cognitive process of metaphor. Being a widespread process, broad cross-domain metaphorical analogizing is one of the contexts within which grammaticalization operates, but many actual instances of grammaticalization show that conventionalizing of the conceptual metonymies that arise in the syntagmatic flow of speech is the prime motivation for reanalysis in the early stages.


Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.

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2018-04-11 Wed

#3271. Ѳ multiple causation ƹ [causation][multiple_causation][contact][pidgin][creole][link]

ɸˤĤƤϡʲεϤȤƲ٤ƤθѲؤδؿΥˤǤ롥

#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])
#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#3152. Ѳ "multiple causation" ([2017-12-13-1])

ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ܳŪ˹ Hopper and Traugott (213) ˡؤθڤ롥

. . . distinctions are often made in historical work between "internal" and "external" factors in change. Roughly speaking, "internal" change is associated with child language acquisition in a relatively homogeneous speech community, and "external" change with contact, whether with communities speaking dialects of the "same language" or other languages. This distinction is essentially similar to the contrast regarding the locus of change between mind/brain and grammar (= "internal") and social interaction and use (= "external"). . . . [S]uch a polarization obscures the realities of language change, in which structure and use, cognitive and social factors continually interact: "speakers' mutual accommodations can draw materials from either the same linguistic system or separate ones" (Mufwene 2001: 15). This is nowhere clearer than in pidgin and creole situations, where the notion of "homogeneous speech community" is typically not appropriate, and where, as we will see, second language acquisition plays a significant role in structural innovation.


ѲǤŪװȳŪװʬ뤬ζΤǤϤʤˤξԤȤ߹蘆äƸѲʤळȤ¿ȤޤäȤʸȻפ¿θѲˤϡmultiple causation ͿƤ롥

Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Mufwene, Salikoko S. The Ecology of Language Evolution. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

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2018-04-10 Tue

#3270. mother tongue ʣǤϤʤ̾ä [compound][genitive][inflection][oe][relationship_noun]

#2654. a six-foot man a ten-mile drive ˻ĤʻĤäƤʤ˸űѸʣ°ʷ ([2016-08-02-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸǤ̵޷ˤߤΤΡϤĤƤζ޷μ岽üФ̤η֤ǤȤ褦㤬Ȥ˳ǧ롥a six-foot man foot whilom, seldom Lady Chapel, ladybird ʤɤˤ1 lady츫ȶޤʤɤƤʤη֤Ȥߤ뤬줾줫ĤƤʣ°ʷʣͿʷñ°ʷͳ褹롥˸ޤä꼺줿ꤷơŪ̵޷Ǥ뤫Τ褦ˤȤ館褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥
Ƕᡤmother tongue ˤ⤽Τ褦1Ĥ餷ΤäѸǤʣȤǧ츻Ūˤ1 mother ϤΤޤޤñ°ʷȤĤޤꡤѸȯ֤ۤСޤ "mother's tongue" ȸäƤ褦ʤΤäΤ#703. űѸο²̾ζɽ ([2011-03-31-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡmother üʶޤ򤹤̾1Ĥǡñʷ mōdor Ʊñ°ʷȤʤꤦ롥mother tongue ȤɽνϡѸ Wyclif moder tonge ȤƽиۤƱ modir langage ⸽Ƥ롥η֤󤯸űѸ̵޷ȿǡƧƤȤ櫓ޤḽŪΤ°ʸȼä modiris langage ƱʸڤƤ뤳ȤդäƤ
ȤϤΤΡˤʤ롥 "mother" űѸ̵Ѳ°ʷ̤ȸѶŪʺϲѸǽФ餫顤ѸƱФǡʣȤƤȤ館줿ȤǽϤʤΤ嵭Τ褦 modiris langage ʻ¸ƤȤȤϡ1ĤΥݥȤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤθǤۤɶϤʤ褦ˤפ롥OED Ǥ⡤°ʷͳ褹Ȥˤ "Probably" źƤ롥դϡѸʣΥѥˤĤƤ褯ؤФʤȡȽǤǤʤ

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2018-04-09 Mon

#3269. Blake αѸ˻ʬ2 [periodisation][norman_conquest][grapheme][ab_language][ormulum][standardisation]

#3231. ɸ˼­򤪤 Blake αѸ˻ʬ ([2018-03-02-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡBlake ˤѸ˻ʬϡŰƬŰɸಽȤʤ줿ʬǤ롥ŪʱѸˤλʬ˴ƤȡȻפȤĤ뤬Ȥ櫓Υޥ (norman_conquest) ˰ܤˤ1066ǯȤ򤵤ȾۤƤΤ褦29Ⱦ?1250ǯˤˤ϶äΤǤϤʤΥޥȤС̾Ѹ˾太ӥ󥰥ɻ˾λȤư뤬Blake θˤȡޤ2ǤλȤ֤Ť
Blake ˤС2ϥȥν񤭸ɸबƶϤäȤ롥Υޥˤäƥȥν񤭸ɸ̵˵ΤǤϤʤäޤ#2712. ѸθŪ֤ꤿ ([2016-09-29-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡ1250ǯޤǤ˶ɽŪǤϤ졤AB language, Orm, Laȝamon ˤɸ˽ऺΰӤֻȯãƤꡤ褿٤ͽȤ̣ǡष3ܶᤷƤȤȤ館٤ǤϤʤ
Υޥ塤12Ⱦ13ˤƸ뤳θŪʡɸŪֻϡBlake ˤСޤǸűѸΥȥɸ˵ĤΤǤꡤβѷȯŸȤȤ館٤ȤΤ˾ʤ̲ѤäƤꡤȼȯŸ뤲Ƥ뤫⤷ʤĤƤɸήǤȤ̣ǡܼϲŪʤΤǤȤߤƤ롥
βŪݤäƤ2κǸΥƥȤ1Ĥϡ1258ǯΡ#2561. The Proclamation of Henry III ([2016-05-01-1]) ǤϤĤƤɸ̾ĤȤ졤κǤʬ䤹㤬 <æ> λѤǤ롥Blake (135) ˤСűѸή <æ> αѸ˾ǸλȤ
դǯĶȡŪʷϵϾä餫˿λ塤ĤޤɸȤǰʤؤäƤBlake (131) ۩

From now on there were no further attempts to create a standard English writing system which could be said to look back to that found earlier, and Old English manuscripts ceased to be living texts which were copied and recopied. A period of uncertainty as to writing in English succeeded, and when a new standard started to arise it would be based on different premises and a different dialect area.


Blake, N. F. A History of the English Language. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996.

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2018-04-08 Sun

#3268. ɸΥ饤եû [discourse_marker][pragmatics][historical_pragmatics][language_change][intensifier][euphemism][sociolinguistics][speed_of_change]

ˤѲβž®ΰȤΤ롥#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ס ([2012-01-14-1]) #1219. ոϤʤब˭٤ ([2012-08-28-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡո (intensifier) 䡤֡ɽ (taboo) ζ餲նɽ (euphemism) ޤƤϾä뤳Ȥϡ褯ΤƤ롥ѤСɽϥ饤ե뤬ûȤȤˤʤ
Ʊͤˡε#3267. ɸȤηϩ ([2018-04-07-1]) Ǽ夲ɸ⡤Ū饤ե뤬ûȤƤ롥ºݡɸŪ˿ɽޤƤϾä򷫤֤ƤεǤ⼨褦ˡɸääդˤ٤⤤ȡƼθ줦뤳ȤطʤˤΤˤĤ Lewis (909) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Discourse markers are known for their frequent renewal. Particularly subject to sociolinguistic factors and fashion, they tend to be "caught" easily, spreading quickly among social networks. Choice of markers therefore can reflect age, social position, and so on. Discourse markers date quickly: many of the most frequent discourse markers and connectives of the 20th century arose only in the 18th or 19th century, including of course, after all, still, I say.


饤ե뤬®ȤäƤʾλ֤褦Ǥꡤոնʸˡ˸饤եۤ®櫓ǤϤʤΤˤäѤˤʤȸ路ۤɤˤϡֵ§Ūʡ׸ѲΰȤߤʤޤѤκǽˤ褦ˡɸüԤħŤȤΤⶽ̣˼ҲŪʴѻоݤˤʤ뤳Ȥ̣뤫ɸήԤȤƤ¦̤ϡäܤƤ褤

Lewis, Diana M. "Late Modern English: Pragmatics and Discourse" Chapter 56 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 901--15.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-03-19-1]

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2018-04-07 Sat

#3267. ɸȤηϩ [discourse_marker][pragmatics][language_change][terminology][subjectification][intersubjectification][grammaticalisation][historical_pragmatics]

ɸ (discourse marker, DM) ˤĤơ#2041. ɸ졤 ([2014-11-28-1]) discourse_marker γƵǼ夲ƤǤϡԸ椫ޤȤ᤿ Archer ˽äơɸħȷϩˤĤƾҲ𤹤롥
ޤɸħ顥Archer (660) ϼ4夲Ƥ롥

- DMs are phonologically short items that normally occur sentence-initially (but can occur in medial or final position . . .);
- DMs are syntactically independent elements (often constituting separate intonation units) which occur with high frequency (in oral discourse in particular);
- DMs lack semantic content (i.e. they are non-referential/non-propositional in meaning)
- DMs are non-truth-conditional elements, and thus optional (i.e. they may be deleted).


Ƥɸϡˤ򤿤ɤСɸʤɤǤϤʤäˤβǡɽɸ餷ʤäƤȤȤǤ롥ǤϡɤΤ褦ɽɸؤȯŸ䤹ΤŵŪɸηϩˤĤƤϡŪʴ鵭ҤΤȡ̣ŪʴΤΤ롥ޤԤˤĤ (Archer 661)

- adverb/preposition > conjunction > DM;
- predicate adverb > sentential adverb structure > parenthetical DM . . .;
- imperative matrix clause > indeterminate structure > parenthetical DM;
- relative/adverbial clause > parenthetical DM.


̣Ūʴηϩϡ̤ (Archer 661)

- truth-conditional > non-truth conditional . . .,
- content > procedural, and nonsubjective > subjective > intersubjective meaning,
- scope within the proposition > scope over the proposition > scope over discourse.


Archer, Dawn. "Early Modern English: Pragmatics and Discourse" Chapter 41 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 652--67.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-03-19-1] [2018-04-08-1]

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2018-04-06 Fri

#3266. 衼åѽɸಽζ [standardisation][chancery_standard]

ޤDZѸɸಽ (standardisation) ܤ뵭¿񤤤ƤդΥ衼åѤνλϤɤäΤFisher (81) ˤСɸಽˤ2Ĥζ̹बФ롥

First, it is apparent that the European languages were standardized first in writing and only later, if ever, in speech. Second, standard written forms appeared first in official government and business documents. These served as the basis for the usage of scribes and printers and eventually of handbooks and dictionaries created for teaching the standard written language.


ä2ܤפǡ衼åѤνˤʽ񤭸աɸ˨Ͼ˸ŪʸˤäȤȤǤ롥ν񤭼ïȤСʤ顤̳ (official secretariats) Ǥ롥ĤޤꡤɸθϡؼԤ䥢ǥߡǤʤз丢ϼԤοͤǤʤ¿̾ʤ̳äΤˤĤơFisher (83) ɤ뤮ʤοƤ롥

. . . there is no ambiguity as to what standard language is today. It is the official language of government, the judiciary, and business. And so it always has been. Since the advent of printing, popular education, and the mass media, the standard language appears to have moved out from under the aegis of government bureaucracy. Indeed, there is much criticism today of bureaucratese and legalese. But make no mistake, standard language is still anchored as firmly in the seats of power as it has been since the dawn of writing. When there have been efforts at spelling or lexical reform, as there were by the academies of Italy, Spain, and France, they have been government sponsored and supported and, one might add, not notably successful. Scholars and writers have had less influence on the shape of the standard language than the nameless bureaucrats and clerks in government offices.


ࡤννʸϤɸʤΤ

Fisher, John H. "European Chancelleries and the Rise of Written Language." Chapter 4 of The Emergence of Standard English. John H. Fisher. Lexington: UP of Kentucky, 1996. 65--83.

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2018-04-05 Thu

#3265. ޤǹν񤭸ɸϤäȥƥä [latin][french][standardisation][chancery_standard][reestablishment_of_english][statute_of_pleading]

15Ⱦ Chancery Standard Ȥ񤭸ձѸѼ郎ȤˤĤơ#3214. 1410ǯ夫30ǯˤƤ Chancery English ˨ ([2018-02-13-1]) ϤȤ chancery_standard εǽҤ٤ƤϹʸ򵭤Ѥ줿ѸѼؤν񤭸ɸȤȤǤС󥰥ɡʵڤӤθαѹˤˤ뤽18Ⱦ˻ޤǥƥǤ³Ȥ¤ϲƤɬפ롥Ĥޤꡤ "Chancery Standard" ȤϡѸ1ѼΤȤʤɤǤϤʤƥΤȤʤΤǤ롥Schaefer (214) Τ褦˽񤤤Ƥ롥

English was not the language of the administration, but rather the minor partner of French and Latin. As Benskin (2004: 38) unmistakably states: "Chancery Standard was Latin, and save for nine years during the Commonwealth, it remained so until 1731, when for official purposes it was abolished altogether by Act of Parliament.


Ѹν񤭸ɸθĤȤ Chancery Standard ϡ"Standard" ȸƤФ줳졤ºݤˤϤҿι⤤ƥե󥹸ν񤭸դ٤Сޥʡʰ֤ŤˤʤäȤŦ⤷
Τ褦ˤƤΥ󥰥ɤθŪʽ񤭸դŪįȡФбѸ (reestablishment_of_english) ħȤߤʤƤ1362ǯ "Statute of Pleading" ʺȽˤʾټ³αѸ첽᤿ˡΧˤ⡤ϥƥȥե󥹸ФʸҤФ뾮񹳤ˤʤȤ⸫Ƥcf. #324. IJˡDZѸѤǧ줿ǯ ([2010-03-17-1])ˡSchaefer (217) ꡤϢڤ

The so-called "Statute of Pleading" of 1362 --- which is so often judged as having considerably raised the status of English --- indeed mandates that English be the (spoken) language of pleading at court. Yet it does so in French --- and in the complicated left-branching syntax of "courtly style" --- because, at the time, French was the language in which royal statutes where (sic) published; and it also regulates that the pleas be "entered and enrolled" in Latin, because this was the language of permanent record.


Schaefer, Ursula. "Standardization." Chapter 11 of The History of English. Vol. 3. Ed. Laurel J. Brinton and Alexander Bergs. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter, 2017. 205--23.
Benskin, Michael. "Chancery Standard." New Perspectives on English Historical Linguistics. Selected Papers from 12 ICEHL, Glasgow, 21--26 August 2002. Vol. 2. Lexis and Transmission. Ed. Christian Kay, Carole Hough, and Irené Wotherspoon. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2004. 1--40.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-09-21-1]

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2018-04-04 Wed

#3264. Saussurian Paradox [saussure][sociolinguistics][history_of_linguistics][idiolect][methodology]

ɸΡ֥塼ΥѥɥåפˤĤơ#3245. idiolect ([2018-03-16-1]) ǿ줿̤ơؿѸؼŵ٤ "sociolinguistics" ι (1124) εҤɤǤߤ褦

¤ؤǤϡñ̤Ωط˴ŤΩƤ빽¤餫ˤ뤳Ȥ濴ŪʲǤꡤΤ˸򶦻Ū֤ˤƤȤ館ϤǤŪǤ뤳ȤɬפǤȹͤ΢ˤѤϡϤŪʻѤˤƤñι¤ΤǤ (monolithic) ȤΤǤ롥ñΤ뤿ˡĿŪʤ졤̤ȤƤʬϼͳѰۡ뤤졦æȤڤΤƤɸϤҲ˶̤ι¤Ρʡ󥰡ˤ뤳ȤǤʤ顤ơĤˤϸĿ͸ (idiolect) оݤȤȤ֤˻äLabov (1972a) Ϥ 'Saussurian Paradox' ȸƤ֡¤ñƸϼºݤλѾ̤ڤΥ졤ñ 'ideal speaker-hearer' θǽϤΤȤơϹ٤۲졤¤ͷΥ줿


ػŪˤϡ塼ϻϤ¤ؤϡ칽¤ŪǤñŪǤ뤳ȤռŪȤ뤳ȤǡɤθʤƤ褤ȤˡݤΤȹͤƤ롥ºݤˤŪǤʤñŪǤʤɤ¸ߤ롥ڤΤƤʤȤԤ⤢ȡιԤϳΤˡȤƤϰȤǤϤʤ variation variability ϡޤƤ֤ΤǤäơ¸ߤʤ櫓ǤϤʤ
ŪۤȼŪ¤Ͼȿ롥򰷤äƤˤϡ¤ͷΥƤʤȤ䤤򡤼Ū˸椷Ƥˤϡޤ˾ɤˤäƤϤʤȤ䤬ɬפ
Ϣơ#2202. langue parole ([2015-05-08-1]) 򻲾ȡ

⿮ ʸͺ ƽؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1987ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-10-23-1] [2018-12-04-1]

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2018-04-03 Tue

#3263. ʤťΥɸ줫μѸ¿Ѹ˽ФΤ [sobokunagimon][old_norse][standardisation][loan_word][borrowing][medium][oe][eme]

#2869. ťΥɸ줫μѤϸűѸǤäƤ⡤ʸڤѸ ([2017-03-05-1]) Ǥ夲ƤˤĤƹͤƤߤ
ѸθäˤϸťΥɸ줫μѸ줬¿ޤޤƤ롥ŪطʤȤƤϡ9Ⱦʹߤ˸ťΥɸȤ󥰤󥰥꽻DZѸüԤȺäȤаޤ롥ǼѤ줿Ϥ¿θťΥɸ줫ñ줬ʸ˽ƸΤϡ󥰤꽻ʤűѸˤƤǤϤʤʤ̻֤ѸʹߡȤ櫓13ʹߤΤȤʤΤǤ롥ŪͽۤǯȼºݤʸڤǯȤδ֤˥åפȤϡѸˤǤ⤷Фм夲뤬ͳϰŪ˼Τ褦˹ͤƤBlake, p. 92 ˡ

It is a feature of the history of the English language that there are a considerable number of Old Norse loans in the language, but the appearance of these loans in writing occurs mainly from the thirteenth century onwards and not from the pre-Conquest period which is when the Viking invasions and settlements occurred. The usual explanation for this is as follows. Most Old English literature which has survived is written in the West Saxon dialect, and the dialect represents those areas of England which were least affected by the Scandinavian invasions and settlements. Hence Scandinavian influence in these areas cannot have been very significant. Even in those areas where the Danes had settled, they continued to live in their own communities and would only gradually have become absorbed among the Anglo-Saxon population. This implies that the new settlers were for a long time regarded as foreigners and no attempt was made to assimilate them. Consequently the introduction of Old Norse words into English was delayed in the Anglian dialects, and their southward drift would be even later than that. It is hardly surprising in this view that words of Scandinavian origin are not found in English in any numbers until the thirteenth century.


Ĥޤꡤ󥰤ϳΤ˥󥰥ˤɬ⤹ˤ轻Υ󥰥ͤȺä櫓ǤϤʤüѤޤ᤿ŪͻϰƳ٤äȤ櫓ޤűѸʸȤƻĤäƤΤ¿ϥ󥰥 West Saxon ǽ񤫤Ƥ뤿ᡤ󥰤θŪƶϸűѸˤʸڤˤΤȤ
Blake (93--94) ϤΰŪʸɤ˲ȤߤƤ롥

The continuity of West Saxon as Standard Old English would have discouraged the adoption of new words from other varieties and even from other languages. The tenth-century reforms were a continuation of the policies introduced by Alfred, and it is not surprising that the attitude towards standardisation and conservatism should have become more rigid as the standard grew in importance.


Blake ιͤϤäդΥ٥ǤϡŪаޤ鼫ͽۤȤꡤťΥɸ줫μѸ¿Ǥ˸űѸäƤɸŪݼŪ West Saxon ν񤭸դˤƤϡŪάŪʶοȤ⤤٤ťΥɸѸѤ뤳ȤϤդ路ʤȹͤ졤ӽ줿ΤǤϤʤĤޤꡤ͡θȯƤʸϤˤȿǤʤäȤȤǤϤʤ
񤭸դݼϤ褯Τ줿¤ɸŪʽ񤭸դȤʤФޤޤݼŪˤʤȤȤϡΤ˹ͤ롥

Blake, N. F. A History of the English Language. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996.

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2018-04-02 Mon

#3262. Ѹɸಽˤ "intensive elaboration" [lme][standardisation][latin][french][register][terminology][lexicology][loan_word][lexical_stratification]

#2742. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ ([2016-10-29-1]) #2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) ([2016-11-01-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Haugen θɸಽ (standardisation) ΥǥǤϡ (form) ȵǽ (function) ֤ˤɸಽȤ館Ƥ롥ˤȡɸಽȤ "maximal variation in function" "minimal variation in form" ħŤ븽ݤǤ롥Ԥ codification (of form)Ԥ elaboration (of function) бȹͤ롥
"elaboration" ȤѸդɬפǤ롥Haugen ɸಽεǰտޤƤΤϡ͡ʻѰ (register) ǹѤ뤳ȤǤȤ̣Ǥ "elaboration of function" ΤȤ "elaboration of form" Ȥ̤β⡤ѸˤɸಽȿϢ뤫򤱤뤿ˡHaugen Ȥạ̈Ǥ "elaboration of function" "extensive elaboration" ȸƤӡ"elaboration of form" Τۤ "intensive elaboration" ȸƤǤ⤤ (Schaefer 209)
Ǥϡ"intensive elaboration" 뤤 "elaboration of form" ȤϲؤΤSchaefer (209) ˤСβˤƤ "the range of the native linguistic inventory is increased by new forms adding further 'variability and expressiveness'" ȤѸθȾޤǤϡ񤭸դɸȤСѸβ餫ǤϤʤषƥե󥹸ȤäˤƱѸ줬ƤȡѸ줬γäɸϰ̤˽Ȥˤʤäκݤɸ줿ƥե󥹸줫̤θäѤѸä¿ݤäޤޤˡ˾褻ơե󥹸θäȥƥθä졤ΤȤƽʤع¤θä˻äʤλˤĤƤϡ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) #2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥ󥹴Υƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1]) ε򻲾ȡˡѸä̤ߡ񤭸վ塤Ѹθä󲽤줿ȤʤСϸɸಽħŤ "minimal variation in form" Ȥϡष "maximal variation in form" ظäƤ褦ʰݤͿ롥μ variation 뤤 variability äؤơ"intensive elaboration" 뤤 "elaboration of form" ȸƤ֤ΤǤ롥
ĤޤꡤɸಽˤϷѰۤʤ¦̤⤢Сۤʤ뼡ǡѰۤ礭ʤ¦̤⤢ꤦȤȤǤ롥ΰ츫̷⤹褦ɸಽΤSchaefer (220) ϼΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥

While such standardizing developments reduced variation, the extensive elaboration to achieve a "maximal variation in function" demanded increased variation, or rather variability. This type of standardization, and hence norm-compliance, aimed at the discourse-traditional norms already available in the literary languages French and Latin. Late Middle English was thus re-established in writing with the help of both Latin and French norms rather than merely substituting for these literary languages.


Schaefer Ursula. "Standardization." Chapter 11 of The History of English. Vol. 3. Ed. Laurel J. Brinton and Alexander Bergs. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter, 2017. 205--23.

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2018-04-01 Sun

#3261. ɥĹΤΡʤĹפ른 [gender][sociolinguistics][political_correctness][grimms_law][verners_law]

ɥĹΤβλˤ Vaterland ʤĹˤХѸʤΤǡHeimatland ʸζιˤѹ褦Ȥ political_correctness ƤɥĹǤʤƤ롥ɥܤˤ˽ƱοʤôưȤƤΤǡܲʪĤƤ롥ˤĤΩʸո˹äƤ뤫ȤͳǤƤݼϤȤϡ֤ꤹס֤Ѥʤ٤ȤդȤʤפʤɤȿȯƤ롥륱ѹפȤΩΤ褦
ɥĹΤϡȥꥢκʲȥϥɥζʤФ1841ǯ˲λŤΤǡΤȤƤϵɥĤΥɥĤؤΰѤ줿Τβλˤ른ϺǶᥪȥꥢ䥫ʥǤⵯäƤꡤǤΩŪɽ֤줿Ȥаޤ롥ƤΡɥĤǤȤǤ롥
ѸǤĹ񡤸ιפɽ魯Ȥ fatherland Ȥ롥motherland Ȥ⤢뤬PC δϥˤĤΩ homeland, native country, home Ѥ뤳Ȥ¿ʤäƤȤѸ patriot ʰԡˡpatriotism ʰ񿴡ˤʤɤǤϸ촴˥ƥǡפ̣ pater ޤޤƤꡤȯۤȤƤ fatherland ȹΤˤĤƤä˥褬äƤȤäʹʤѸǤϡ촴Ρפΰ̣ľܤˤϴˤ
ƥ pater ȱѸ father ϸ츻ŪˤƱδطܤ򤷤褦ȻפС֥ˡ§ (grimms_law) ֥ͥˡ§ (verners_law) μɬפȤʤ롥ˤϡ#2277. ֹԤפΰ̣ repair ([2015-07-22-1])#102. hundred ˡ§ ([2009-08-07-1])#480. father ͥˡ§ ([2010-08-20-1])#2297. Ѹ flow ȥƥ fluere ([2015-08-11-1]) դεɤ

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