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2021-09-30 Thu

#4539. 󥰥̾ι [onomastics][personal_name][anglo-saxon][oe]

űѸΥ󥰥̾ιϡޥ췲ΰ仺ѤΤǤ롥űѸ̾ñ줬̾ǤȤƤѤ뤬1Ǥʤ (monothematic) ȡ2Ǥʤ (dithematic) 롥Ԥ Hengest (stallion), Frōd (wise), Hild (battle), Bēage (ring) ʤɤɽ뤬Ū¿ΤϸԤǤ롥2ǤȤ߹碌뤳Ȥˤۤʤ̻̾Ǥ뤫
Ǥμ˴ؤ¤ꡤ1 (prototheme) Τۤ2 (deuterotheme) ¿̾줫ƻ줬ǤȤʤ뤬ˤϰ̣Ūʷǧ롥פʥפ󤲤褦 (Coates (319--20))

°Ĥɽ魯: Swæf- (Swabian), þēod- (nation)
ŪƻŪʡϡפ˴ؤ: Beald-/-beald (brave), Weald-/-weald (power), Beorht-/-beorht (bright), Æðel- (noble), Cūð- (famous), -mǣr (famous)
Τ˴ؤ: Hild-/-hild (battle), Wīg-/-wīg (battle), -brord (spear), -gār (pear), Beorn- (warrior), Wulf-/-wulf (wolf; warrior), Here-/-here (army), Sige-/-sige (victory), Ēad- (prosperity, treasure); Rǣd-/-rǣd (counsel), Burg-/-burg (pledge), Mund-/-mund (hand; protection), -helm (protection; helmet)
ʿ¤˴ؤ: Friðu-/-frið (peace), Lēof- (dear), Wine-/-wine (friend)
ŪʤΡ󥭥ꥹȶ: Ōs- (deity), Ælf- (elf), Rūn-/-rūn (secret, mystery)
¾: -stān (stone), Eorp- (red), Ēast- (east)

Ǥϥ󥰥ʸΥɤȤƤߤ뤳ȤǤ

Coates, Richard. "Names." Chapter 6 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 312--51.

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2021-09-29 Wed

#4538. ͭ̾ϰ [onomastics][toponymy][personal_name][semantics][noun][category][linguistics][semiotics][sign]

ޤˤ⤷ǡФƤޤäȤǤܤȤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤȤʬޤ͡ˤȤäơϸͭ̾ (onomastics) ǤüŪˤп̾̾Ǥť¤ˤϤޤळȤɬʤΤɬ򤱤ƤΤǤǯ˰١ɬơޤ֤ΤǤؤ󺤤ޤäƤޤۤɡˤȤäƼϤΤǤ
ͭ̾ꡤפˡ̾פۤɡؤˤƼŪǿ򤷤Ƥʤ顤¤ܼŪϤޤ󡥸դ̾˻Ϥޤ̾˽ǽ뤫Ǥ (cf. #1184. ͭ̾첽 (1) ([2012-07-24-1])#1185. ͭ̾첽 (2) ([2012-07-25-1]) ǿ줿 "Onymic Reference Default Principle" (ORDP)ˡ
⤽ͭ̾ȤΤϡΰʤΤǤʤΤȤȤ餷ˤʤΤǺޤǤ͡ꤵǤϤޤ󤬡䤬֥ѥꡤ󡤥ޥ륻桤֥르˥פȾʥե󥹸ȯǸȤƤ⡤ե󥹸줬褯äȤȤˤʤޤ󡥤⤽̾ϥե󥹸ʤΤɤʤΤȤ꤬뤫Ǥ (cf. #2979. Chibanian ϥƥ졩 ([2017-06-23-1]
ѸˤΥϥɥ֥åˡCoates ˤͭ̾ؤ˴ؤϤޤƬΡָͭ̾ϰ̡פꤹ1ꡤǽѤޤ (312)

The status of proper names
   Names is a technical term for a subset of the nominal expressions of a language which are used for referring ('identifying or selecting in context') and, in some cases, for addressing a partner in communication. Nominal expressions are in general headed by nouns. According to one of the most ancient distinctions in linguistics, nouns may be common or proper, which has something to do with whether they denote a class or an individual (e.g. queen vs Victoria), where individual means a single-member set of any sort, not just a person. Much discussion has taken place about how this distinction should be refined to be both accurate and useful, for instance by addressing the obvious difficulty that a typical proper noun denoting persons may denote many separate individuals who bear it, and that common nouns may refer to individuals by being constructed into phrases (the queen). I will leave the concept [±proper], applied to nouns, for intuitive or educated recognition before returning to discussion of the inclusive concept of proper names directly. Proper nouns have no inherent semantic content, even when they are homonymous with lexical words (Daisy, Wells), and many, perhaps all, cultures recognise nouns whose sole function is to be proper (Sarah, Ipswich). Typically they have a unique intended referent in a context of utterance. Proper names are the class of such proper nouns included in the class of all expressions which have the properties of being devoid of sense and being used with the intention of achieving unique reference in context. Onomastics is the study of proper names, and concentrates on proper nouns; I shall confine the main subject-matter of this chapter to the institutionalised proper nouns associated with English and, in accordance with ordinary usage, I shall call them proper names or just names. Readers should note that strictly speaking these are a subset of proper names, and from time to time other members of the larger set will be discussed. There is some evidence from aphasiology and cognitive neuropsychology that institutionalised proper nouns --- especially personal names --- form a psychologically real class . . . .


Ǥ⤷ȴϡ֤⤷ޤ󡥤ҾΤɤǤߤƤ

Coates, Richard. "Names." Chapter 6 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 312--51.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-12-09-1] [2022-03-22-1]

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2021-09-28 Tue

#4537. Ѹ줫ΰϤˤ̲ "domain loss" [linguistic_imperialism][language_shift][sociolinguistics][linguistic_right][domain_loss]

ʱѸ춵ˤǤܸζʹ춵ˤʤˤƤΤϡ椷ȤǤ롥Τ褦ʵ򼪤ˤȤºݡѸΤܸ줬ˤʤäƤޤȤϺ˻Ϥޤä櫓ǤϤʤŪǶε󤲤С㤨С#3010. ָο̱ϲܤ̵ۤФʹϤʤס ([2017-07-24-1]) #3011. Ǥ٤ƤŤϵǤ ([2017-07-25-1]) ʤɤ򻲾Ȥ줿
ŪˤܤǤϤΤ褦ʷǰϤۤɶʤԹѸ줬ƩƤ餺ڼ¤ȤʤʤषѸѤҲ˹äƤꡤѸ줬դȤϰǤڼ¤Ǥ롤줬Ѹ˿Ƥޤǽ̣ӤӤ뤫㤨С̲Ūˤ EFL ϰʬव뤬ҲǤαѸѤμºݤ˾Ȥ餻 ESL ϰ˶ᤤ֤Ťˤꡤ˱ѸΰϤƤ (#56. Ѹΰ֤ŤѤĤĤ ([2009-06-23-1]) 򻲾ȡˡΤ褦ϰǤϥӥͥڡؽѤʬDZѸ줬ƩƤꡤѤΰ褬󶹤ʤäƤƤȤĤޤꡤ"domain loss" Ƥ褦ʤΤPhillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas (325) Ѥ롥

One might think that European countries with strong national languages are unaffected by greater use of English, that its use and learning represent merely the addition of a foreign language. However, the international prestige and instrumental value of English can lead to linguistic territory being occupied at the expense of local languages and the broad democratic role that national languages play. An increasing use of English in the business, entertainment and academic worlds in Scandinavia has led to a perception of threat that tends to be articulates as a risk of "domain loss." This term tends to be used loosely, and minor empirical studies suggest that there has been an expansion rather than a contraction of linguistic resources hitherto.


ºݡ̲ "domain loss" ζҤơ2006ǯˡ̲פǧƤ롥ʸ̲Τ٤Ƥν̱θ츢 (linguistic_right) 𤤤Ƥ롤طʤˤθ˰ݤˤʤ뤳Ȥ򤱤褦Ȥʣ (plurilingualism) λۤ롥
̲Ǥ顿餳嵭Τ褦ʾ롥ܤξäƤ¾ȤӤפ

Phillipson, Robert and Tove Skutnabb-Kangas. "English, Language Dominance, and Ecolinguistic Diversity Maintenance." Chapter 16 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 313--32.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-04-20-1] [2023-02-14-1]

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2021-09-27 Mon

#4536. 쥤ǥκˤ3ĤεŪ [linguistic_imperialism][linguistic_ideology][standardisation][world_englishes]

Ѹ (world_englishes) ϡ쥤ǥ (linguistic_ideology) ȷӤĤ䤹Ѹε (cf. linguistic_imperialism) ⤽1ĤȿǤǤ롥ΤȤϡ#4466. World Englishes ؤ6ĤΥץ ([2021-07-19-1]) Ǥ⿨Ƥ롥
⤽쥤ǥɤΤ褦˲᤹뤫#2163. 쥤ǥ ([2015-03-30-1]) 1Ĥθ򼨤 Bhatt (293) θҲ𤹤롥ޤʬѤ롥

Language ideologies, broadly construed, refer to beliefs, feelings, and conceptions of language structure and use that to serve political and economic interest of those in power . . . . Under this view, language---English, for our purposes---is used as a resource to promote and protect the econo-cultural and political interests of those in power; however, it must be noted that language ideologies are rarely brought up to the level of discursive consciousness.


ʿС쥤ǥȤϡθȤθϤ˴ؤ뿮ǰηϤǤꡤռ˾뤳ȤʤतΤΡȤȤˤʤ롥Bhatt (293) ³ơΥǥκˤ3ĤεŪȤ

The three semiotic processes underlying the ideological representation of language variation are: iconization---the process that fuses some quality of the linguistic feature and a supposedly parallel quality of the social group and understands one as the cause or the inherent, essential, explanation of the other . . . ; fractal recursivity---the projection of an opposition made at one level onto some other level so that the distinction is seen to recur across categories of varying generality; and erasure---selective disattention to, or non-acknowledgment of, unruly forms of linguistic variation, those that do not fit neatly into predetermined paradigms of linguistic descriptions.


Ūʸ츦ϸ쥤ǥβΤ˹׸뤬Ǥ⤽⤽Τ褦ʸ츦椬θ쥤ǥΩӤƤǽˤꡤդפ롥ݡ餫θ쥤ǥΩӤƤʤ츦ʤˤϤʤȤäƤ褤

Bhatt, Rakesh M. "World Englishes and Language Ideologies." Chapter 15 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 291--311.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-02-14-1]

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2021-09-26 Sun

#4535. 2üԤκ --- Bilingual Mixed Languages [contact][pidgin][creole][creoloid][terminology][code-switching][bilingualism]

2üԤɤ2Ĥθδ֤Ԥ褷ʤä code-switching code-mixing ȤΤƤ롥Ϥޤξδ֤Ԥ褷Ƥ륳ߥ˥βȤƤߤ٤Τǡξ򸻤Ȥ벿餫οѼ郎ޤ줿ȤȤˤϤʤʤ
ʤˤϤΤ褦ʥߥ˥ΥѥȤƲвȤ٤Τˤʤ礬롥θѼ "bilingual mixed languages" ȸƤФ롥#1781. ܿ෿ ([2014-03-13-1]) ˾Ȥ餻С"extreme language mixture" ̾βǡԥ (pidgin) 䥯쥪 (creole) Ʊ˰ѼǤ롥ԥ䥯쥪Ȥ¿ۤʤäƤ롥Winford (170) βѤ褦

There is general consensus that bilingual mixed languages are composites of materials drawn from just two languages. In what are perhaps the prototypical cases, the grammar is derived primarily from one of the languages, and the lexicon primarily from the other. Examples include Anglo-Romani and Media Lengua (a blend of Spanish lexicon and Quechua grammar). However, the neat separation of grammar and vocabulary by respective source language is not found in all cases. There are cases where structural materials are derived from both sources, as in Michif, which combines French NP structure with Cree VP structure. Whatever the nature of the mixture might be, there is agreement that the resulting outcome is a new creation, distinct from either of its source languages.


"bilingual mixed languages" ϡ̾Ȥꡤ2ѤԤʤƤĶˤ롥ħŪʤΤϡǤγơθͳ褹ΤΤ˶̤뤳ȤޤŵŪ˥ԥ˴ѻ褦ñ㲽 (simplification) ۤȤʤȤħ⼨
ȤƤϡץä륢ӥȥꥷ줬 Kormakiti Arabicꥷȥȥ륳줬 Asia Minor Greekȥ٥åȸ줬 Wutunޥˡȥڥ줬 CalóȥХȥ줬 Ma'aڥȥ奢줬 Media Lengua, ե󥹸ȥ꡼줬 Michifȥ塼ȸ줬 Mednyj (Copper Island) Aleut ʤɤ롥Ǹ2ĤˤĤƤϡ#1717. dual-source κ ([2014-01-08-1]) Ǥ夲

Winford, Donald. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.

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2021-09-25 Sat

#4534. űѸȸťΥɸܿη̤ koineisation (3) [old_norse][contact][koine][koineisation][borrowing][language_shift][simplification][inflection][substratum_theory]

8Ⱦ11ˤƥ󥰥αѸϸťΥɸǻܿθܿ (contact) ϸαѸη˿ʱƶڤܤѸ˾ΰյ礭ˡ¿θ椬ʤ졤ѤƤܥ֥Ǥ⡤ťΥɸ˴ؤ old_norse ¿εǼ夲Ƥ
θܿħϡñʤüѤˤȤɤޤ餺٥ˤƶڤǤˤ롥˶޸ñ㲽 (simplification) ʿ (levelling) ˴ؤơܿι׸äȤŦƤ롥θܿܿΥݥΤʤǤɤΤ褦ʰ֤ŤˤΤ͡ʵ롥
ʬ˱ƶϤΤ Thomason and Kaufman (97, 281) θΩƤǤϡθܿοϡ (borrowing) 뤤ϸ (language_shift) ˤƶȤäˤȤϡξθüԤǤϤʤθüԤǤȤ
ξüԤȤ˼餸Ƥ륿פθܿǤȤ򤬤롥2ʤ뤤2ˤüԤߤŶ򸫤Ĥ֤ʿƤ͡ (koineisation) βǤϤʤȤΩˤĤƤϡǤˡ#3972. űѸȸťΥɸܿη̤ koineisation ([2020-03-12-1]) ȡ#3980. űѸȸťΥɸܿη̤ koineisation (2) ([2020-03-20-1]) ǤҲ𤷤Ƥ Winford (82--83) Dawson ˰͵򤷤ĤIJ⤷ƤʬѤ

Hope Dawson (2001) suggests that the variety of Northern English that emerged from the contact between Viking Norse and Northern Old English was in fact a koiné --- a blend of elements from the two languages. The formation of this compromise variety involved selections from both varieties, with gradual elimination of competition between variants through leveling (selection of one option). This suggestion is attractive, since it explains the retention of Norse grammatical features more satisfactorily than a borrowing scenario does. We saw . . . that the direct borrowing of structural features (under RL [= recipient language] agentivity) is rather rare. The massive diffusion of Norse grammatical features into Northern Old English is therefore not what we would expect if the agents of change were speakers of Old English importing Norse features into their speech. A more feasible explanation is that both Norse and English speakers continued to use their own varieties to each other, and that later generations of bilingual or bidialectal speakers (especially children) forged a compromise language, as tends to happen in so many situations of contact.


ܿؤγǤϡ͡ΩԤƤƤ褦˻פ롥

Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Dawson, Hope. "The Linguistic Effects of the Norse Invasion of England." Unpublished ms, Dept of Linguistics, Ohio State U, 2001.
Winford, Donald. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.

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2021-09-24 Fri

#4533. OALD10 դ¥ƤƱָΰ [homonymy][homophony][lexicography][dictionary][lexicology][pronunciation]

ǯǤ줿 Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English 10ǤˡǤˤϤʤäפäƤ롥Ʊ (homophony) 򼨤2ʤ뤤3ˤλŦǤcf. #286. homonymy, homophony, homography, polysemy ([2010-02-07-1]
Ʊָ (homophone) ϱѸ¿롥flour/flower knight/night Τ褦Ūռ˾䤹Τǡcymbal/symbol flew/flue ʤɸƤߤгΤˤʤȤतΤΤ⤢ʤʤߤ flour/flower ˤĤƤ #183. flower flour ([2009-10-27-1])#2440. flower flour (2) ([2016-01-01-1]) flower ʲ֡ˤ flour ʾʴˤƱ츻 (heldio) 򻲾ȡˡ
#2945. ְ㤨䤹ƱָΥڥ ([2017-05-20-1]) ǤĤ󤲤OALD10 򽸤93ܤƱָ줬ŦƤ롥ʲ Takahashi et al. (78--80) ˤޤȤƤѤ褦

allowed/aloud
bare/bear
base/bass
berry/bury
blew/blue
board/bored
brake/break
buy/by/bye
cell/sell
chews/choose
chute/shoot
coarse/course
coward/cowered
crews/cruise
cue/queue
cymbal/symbol
days/daze
dear/deer
desert/dessert
dew/due
feat/feet
flour/flower
flew/flu
forth/fourth
grate/great
groan/grown
hear/here
heal/heel/he'll
air/heir
higher/hire
hole/whole
idle/idol
colonel/kernel
knight/night
lead/led
lessen/lesson
mail/male
meat/meet
miner/minor
missed/mist
muscle/mussel
knew/new
knows/nose
oar/or/ore
one/won
pain/pane
passed/past
peace/piece
pair/pare/pear
peak/peek/pique
plain/plane
praise/prays/preys
principal/principle
profit/prophet
key/quay
rap/wrap
raise/rays/raze
read/red
read/reed
rain/reign/rein
road/rode/rowed
role/roll
rose/rows
rouse/rows
sail/sale
scene/seen
cent/scent/sent
seas/sees/seize
cereal/serial
sight/site
soar/sore
sole/soul
sew/so/sow
stationary/stationery
steal/steel
storey/story
suite/sweet
son/sun
tail/tale
threw/through
tide/tied
toe/tow
vain/vein
wail/whale
waist/waste
war/wore
weak/week
ware/wear/where
wait/weight
weather/whether
whine/wine
which/witch
warn/worn

įƤȡñֻȯΤ褤ٶˤʤ롥ʤˤϥإ?ȻפΤ⤢ΤǤϡ

Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. 10th ed. Ed. A. S. Hornby. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2020.
Takahashi, Rumi, Yukiyoshi Asada, Marina Arashiro, Kazuo Dohi, Miyako Ryu, and Makoto Kozaki. "An Analysis of Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, Tenth Edition." Lexicon 51 (2021): 1--106.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-06-06-1] [2021-10-24-1]

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2021-09-23 Thu

#4532. Ѹˤؤ٤콤ءˤ HP [link][hel_education][khelf][seminar][glowbe][khelf-conference-2021]

ȡkhelf-conference-2021פꤹǥ߹ɡʥ饤ˤ򳫺Ť̵˽λޤؤǻ̩ǽ¤ؤӤλ֤Ȥʤޤ߳黲äƤˤ⡤鿽夲ޤ
ơشϤޤȤȤ⤢ޤѸˤγؤӤ¥ƤHP1ľҲ𤷤ȻפޤΥ߹ɤǤ⤪äˤʤä콤ʸѸƸزHPǤϽѸμҲŪǤѸ̤ˤĤơȤ櫓ȴϢΥڡͭѤʾ󤬵ͤޤäƤޤѸˤ˴ؤƳؤ٤륵ȤΥ󥯽䡤 Shakespeare Ϣξ󤬴ޤޤޤȤ櫓Ѹ˴Ϣưؤΰ⤬˭٤Ǥ
ޤGloWbE (= Corpus of Global Web-Based English) Ϣξ󤬤ޤȤޤäƤΥڡ⡤ѥλȤؤ־˻ͤˤʤޤ
塤HP 򽼼¤Ƥ椯ͽȤΤȤǡޤޤڤߤǤܥ֥ˤ⤿ӤӸڤƤƤޤ꤬Ȥޤ

ʸ嵭2021/10/18(Mon) HP õҲ𤹤륳ƥֵΥۡڡˬƤߤ褦 رäƤޤ⤴

Referrer (Inside): [2022-09-22-1]

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2021-09-22 Wed

#4531. World Englishes ץ饤 --- 饤󥼥߹ɤ2ܤιֵ [khelf][khelf_hel_intro_2021][seminar][hel_education][world_englishes][slide][variety][glowbe][khelf-conference-2021]

ȺΥߤΥ饤ɤԤʤƤޤ2ܤκϡ͡ʳưδ֤ˡΡWorld Englishes פޤޤݤȤƤϡ̤Ǥ

Ѹ줬ʣ "Englishes" ȤѤ褦ˤʤäƵפߡǻȤƤ͡ʼαѸΤ "World Englishes" ȤȤ¿ʤꡤŪʴؿޤäƤƤ롥ֱܹǤϡˤƱѸ줬˳ȻWorld Englishes и˻äΤˤ򳵴Ѥ롥ơ䤿ѸѼԡؽԡԡԤȤ World Englishes ФƤɤΤ褦٤Ǹ礨Ф褤ΤˤĤƵ롥


饤ɤ˸ޤʲ˥饤ɤγƥڡؤΥ󥯤ĥäƤޤΤǡʤɤˤѤ

1. World Englishes for khelf-conference-2021
2. World Englishes --- ɤ礨Ф褤Τ
3. ܼ
4. 1. Ϥ --- ˹Ѹ
5. 2. ꥹ
6. Ϣǯɽ
7. 3. ͡ʱѸ
8. ԥȥ쥪
9. 4. ѸƯῴϤȱ
10. 5. ѸΥǥ
11.
12. ʸ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-10-21-1] [2021-10-19-1]

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2021-09-21 Tue

#4530. ǯ٤Υ饤󥼥߹ɤ1 [khelf][khelf_hel_intro_2021][seminar][hel_education][khelf-conference-2021]

ʸʸ칶DZѸˡѸؤؤδ쥼ߤΥ߹ɤ饤dzŤޤǯ٤˰³ʲҤˤ̾ޤ꤬Υ߹ɤϤʤ鷺饤ǤγŤȤʤޤ饤ɤ褫˥塼ǡ¤2֤ˤȻפäƤޤ
ܥ֥ɤޤƤ볧ˤϡε˾嵭ߤDZѸˤ˴ؤƹԤʤäƤ븦桦ưˤĤƹ󤵤ƤȻפޤؤ1ߤˤʤΤǤγưԤʤäƤƤޤơ⤽Τ褦ʳưŤ᤿ȻפäƤޤߤˡ´ξδطԤääơkhelf (= Keio History of the English Language Forum) ȼΤƳưƤޤۡڡɤˤ khelf Υۡڡǯ٤Ω夬äƤꡤ⾯ĥƥĤ䤷ƤͽǤ
ǯ٤ΤޤǤκγưȤƤϡ4ǯٽᤫ2ˤ錄äƤۤ³ֱѸƳ2021󤲤ޤܲǯٸȾϤޤ륿ߥ󥰤Ǥ⤢ޤǯٽΰյɤ餻뤿ˤ⡤μݤƻפƤȻפޤ

ǯٽ45ϡⶵ̿ͤ⿷ؤӤѶŪˤʤǤǡѸˤ칶䤿 khelf СرȳΥ濴ˤȯȤʤäơѸˤȤʬȤ̥Ϥ˹٤餫Ρ֥ƥġפ1Ĥĥ־˸ɽƤȤֱѸƳ2021פΩƤޤ

45ʷˤϤ5ܤޤǡƤͽǤ֤ʤ˿ȶʥȥԥåѸˤˤʤΤפȤ֤¾ΤʤˤĤƿ˳䤷Ƥ뽸ĤΤפȤ͡˴Ƥ餤Ѹˤ˴ؿäƤ館ФȻפޤ


δ̤ơ khelf СѸˤ˴ؤ륨åƥĤåץɤ졤ǽŪˤ49ΥƥĤޤޤ¿ܤ̤Ƥ줬ߤȤʤä khelf Сγؽλε礤˾夬ޤܥ֥ɼԤγͤˤƴդޤƥĤΥ֤Ͼ˥ץ󤷤ƤޤΤǡɤĤǤ⤴
ɤΤ褦ʴΩ夲Ƥʤɤ⡤Υ߹ɤä礤ȻפäƤޤkhelf ưˤĤޤơȤ⤴ٱȤϤΤۤɤꤤޤ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-10-21-1]

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2021-09-20 Mon

#4529. Ѹȥᥭ [mexico][contact][ame][spanish][world_englishes][map]

̡Ѹˤˤƥᥭܤ뤳ȤϤʤᥭƻˤˤƽפ̤Ƥ뤳ȤʬäƤƤ⡤ڥ礿Ȥᥭʥꥫ˱ѸФƸäʬǤ٤αƶͿƤ뤳ȤϤˤ衤ʾˤɤͿƤΤϼǤϤʤѸءѸˤʸ̮ǤΡơפȤϡꥫ罰ȥʥΤȤǤꡤᥭϻ¾ޤޤʤȤΤ¾
Ū˾嵭˴Ť󤸤ƤϤΤѸʸ̮ǥᥭ˺ƤäƤϺ롤Ȥͤ˽вäΤǾҲ𤷤ƤHall-Lew (377--78) Ѥ롥

English use in Mexico is important to a discussion of English in North America not only for descriptive comprehensiveness but also because of its influence on U.S. Englishes. English is the primary language of at least one community in Mexico, the Mormon colonies in Casas Grandes Valley, Chihuahua . . . . English is also widely spoken in the communities on the U.S. border and in towns frequented by U.S.-based tourists. English is the most widely taught non-Spanish language in Mexico, having "an important role to play in formal education, equipping persons to participate in various occupational and professional activities such as tourism, industry, government, media, science, and technology, among others" . . . . Given that much of the U.S. was previously property of Mexico, the features of Mexican English are both historically relevant and increasingly representative of growing communities of Mexican Americans across the United States.


嵭̤ꡤᥭˤ¤ϱѸ쥳ߥ˥ƥ롥ϾɤǸȶ餹Ѹ쥳ߥ˥ƥǤ롥ޤαѸפȶѤƤ륳ߥ˥ƥȤ϶ä⤷ʤᥭʳˤ⥫ϰˤϤΤ褦ʼҲ񤬤礳礳¸ߤΤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#1731. English as a Basal Language ([2014-01-22-1]) 򻲾ȡ
Ѹ (world_englishes) δ顤ᥭư֤ŤƤߤΤ褤ʰʲ (C)ROOTS/Heibonsha.C.P.C ˤᥭϿޡˡ

Map of Mexico

Hall-Lew, Lauren. "English in North America." Chapter 18 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 371--88.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-11-28-1]

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2021-09-19 Sun

#4528. ꥹμϰ˻Ĥ3Ĥȯ [pronunciation][h][r][rhotic][vowel][centralisation][phonology][phonetics][phoneme][substratum_theory][celtic_hypothesis][cockney]

ꥹΤΤʤ濴ŪʱѸȤС֥ƥΥ󥰥ɤΥɥ濴Ȥ륤󥰥ɸѸΤȤؤΤ̤Ǥ롥ʳΥ󥰥ɤ䡤륺åȥɡɡ¾ʤɤޤȤƼϰȸƤ֤ȤˤȡμϰαѸѼˤϤФиŤħ (relic features) ѻ롥ŪħȤơCorrigan (355) 3Ĥͭ̾ʻ󤲤Ƥ

(1) "FOOT/STRUT split"
Ū /ʊ/ 濴ϰ /ʊ/ /ʌ/ ʬѲ򤵤17岽 (centralisation) ȸƤФǡˤ첻Ǥ1Ȥˤʤ롥ϰǤʬϵäƤʤ foot strut Ѥ餺 /ʊt/ ǵӱƧࡥ#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1]) Ͽޤ򼨤褦ˡʬ̵ͭʬۤΤǤ롥

(2) "non-prevocalic /r/"
ܥ֥Ǥ rhotic ¿εˤƤ#452. 󥰥ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) ϿޤǺܤƤ뤬Ǥ첻֤ʤŪ r ¸³Ƥ뤬濴Ǥϼ¸ʤåȥɤ䥢ɤ rhotic Ǥʤ륺Ǥϰ non-rhotic Ǥˡ

(3) "h-dropping"
Cockney ȯȤƤ褯ΤƤ h æ븽ݡ¤ Cockney ˸¤餺Ѹʹߡ濴ϰǹԤʤƤh-dropping ϰѼȤƤħǤϤʤҲѼȤƤħȤߤ뤳Ȥ¿ϰѼǤϤޤ긫ʤȤ¤⤢ꡤȤñǤϤʤȷϤδؤıѸѼǤϰŪ˸Ƭ h ݻƤ롥

Τ褦˼ϰϸŤħݻƤ뤳Ȥ¿ŪʴʬۤǽʬʤΤϰϡŪʰ̣ǼդǤǤʤȷϸ졦ؤˤıѸѼ郎ԤʤƤϰȤ̱²Ūʰ̣ǤդǤ롥Corrigan Ͼ嵭ħȸزˤΤȶĥƤ櫓ǤϤʤ򼨺ǾҲ𤷤Ƥ롥

Corrigan, Karen P. "The Atlantic Archipelago of the British Isles." Chapter 17 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 335--70.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-05-23-1]

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2021-09-18 Sat

#4527. ѸθˤѤǤͤҲ [word_order][syntax][elt][review]

̾ŲؤιⶶͤꡤҤĤ˼Ǥ줿 ԡˡμȤ˳褫ְ̣ױѸƳŪطʤȼȼ١ʤҤĤ˼2021ǯˤ򤴸ܤޤʤ꤬Ȥޤˡ
ְ̣פˤѸƳˡȤΤˤĤƤϡٶμޤǤְ̣פʸˡѤĸѸΤ褦ʸˤȤäƤä꤯ΤȤȤ褯ʬޤ
ѸˤȤΩ줫ϡⶶμɮ4ϡѸˤߤذ̣١פȤ櫓⤷ɤߤޤ⤿ʤűѸˡְ̣פŬѤȡäɤʤΤޤ礬ΩѸ줫ѸˤƤưŪʻϡְ̣פǤϤɤȤ館Τְ̣פ̻˾褻ƤߤŪ¸Ȥɤߤޤ
4ϤϡݤȤƤϡְ̣ͤǤϤޤ¤ϱѸθˤûʬ䤹⤷ƤֱѸפˤʤäƤޤѸˤϸѤ˭٤ǡʤȤ˭٤ơˡʤʤѤʤΤǤ褯Ф줿ԸؤθڤˤФƤꡤΥơޤȤɤळȤǤȻפޤ礦̷ǸˤˤĤƽ񤤤ƤȤ⤢ꡤˤȤäƥ꡼Ǥ
򰷤ä hellog Ȥơʲ󤲤Ƥޤ¾ˤ word_order γƵ򤴻Ȥ

#132. űѸ줫Ѹؤθȯã ([2009-09-06-1])
#137. θδܸ ([2009-09-11-1])
#2975. ޤοȸθ경ζϴط ([2017-06-19-1])
#3124. ܸ෿ (1) ([2017-11-15-1])
#3125. ܸ෿ (2) ([2017-11-16-1])
#3128. ܸ෿ (3) ([2017-11-19-1])
#3129. ܸ෿ (4) ([2017-11-20-1])
#3127. ĸ줫鸽Ѹؤδܸοܡ ([2017-11-18-1])
#3131. Ϣ11֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡס ([2017-11-22-1])
#3160. Ϣ12֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡס ([2017-12-21-1])
#3733.رѸ춵٤Ϣ5֤ʤѸϸ礬ʤ˷ޤäƤΤס ([2019-07-17-1])
#4385. Ѹ줬Τ SV θäȻפäƤޤ󤫡 ([2021-04-29-1])

ԡˡμȤ˳褫ְ̣ױѸƳŪطʤȼȼ١ҤĤ˼2021ǯ
ⶶ ͤ4ϡѸˤߤذ̣١ ԡˡμȤ˳褫ְ̣ױѸƳŪطʤȼȼסҤĤ˼2021ǯ87-113ǡ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2021-09-17 Fri

#4526. ʼˡرѸλ׹ˡäʸˡʸå [review][politeness][japanese][face][pragmatics][sociolinguistics][t/v_distinction][heldio][inoueippei]

7ˡ޿ʼˡرѸλ׹ˡäʸˡʸåǤޤԤϻηʸʸ칶ƱνǤʰ夵󡤤ܤޤƤ꤬Ȥޤˡ
Ԥΰˤ䤬6ƤֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸(heldio) ̥ȤȤƽб餷ƤƤޤʢƱνȤƤ˴ŤޤˡˤĤƤΤ٤Ǥ10ʬ2ܤμϿȤʤäƤޤΤǡ2ܤ⤪ʹƨʤ⡤2ܤκǸ5äۤɻ֤­ʤƤڤƤޤʵˡ



ܸʸˤˤʥƥޥȥۥͤϥåȤΤˤΤФơѸʸˤǤϤΤʤΤǥϥåĥ뤳ȤޤϡܿͤαѸؽԤ¿Ƥ뤳ȤǤϤʤǤ礦᤬ܽǷ̯ʥ䥸㥰˭٤ˤ꼡餫ˤƤΤϡǤϤʤȤȤǤѸʸˤˤ⥿ƥޥȥۥͤϤȤ롥ܸʸˤΤȤϰä¸ߤƤ롤ȤȤǤ
ǤϡɤäƤΤȤСѸʸˤδפˤϡΩס֤ĤʤספؤλָȤȤǤָĿͤȤʴطݤʤĤʤפΤѸήȤȤǤ͡ΩŪ夯岼طΤĤʤŻ뤹ŪܸʸˤȯۤȤϡΤ礭ۤʤޤ
䤬ѸˤδؿϡѸŪʡΩס֤Ĥʤספؤλָϡޤ줿ΤȤȤǤޤǤϤۤɶʤä褦˻פ뤫Ǥ餯äƤǤϤʤȡҲŪ岼ط񤹤2;̾ you/thou ζ̤äƤΤ⡤17ʹߡˤä¤פФޤ
ܽ濴ơޤѸʸӤݥ饤ȥͥȤäȤȻפޤѸظԤȤƤԤοĺϡΡʸˡʸåפ˸Ƥ褦˻פޤʸˡȤŪʷʪˤ⡤ôμҲͭʸ׹ͲϩǻȿǤƤΤȤǤ
ܽϤ˻ȤѸ㤬˭٤ǡѽŪɤळȤǤޤºݡѸä񤤤ꤹȤˡ®ĤθˡѤƤޤYou lost me. Ȥ Let me share with you . . . . ȤǤ˫줿Ȥ Can you tell my wife that? ֤Τϡˤϻ⤤ƸʤǤ
ФʤɤѸܤǤҤɤ

ʼرѸλ׹ˡäʸˡʸå١˼Ҥ޿ӡ2021ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-05-27-1] [2022-03-17-1]

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2021-09-16 Thu

#4525. פɽ魯夫鲼ޤ [taboo][euphemism][swearing][slang][thesaurus]

źθǡ˴ؤϥ֡ (taboo) Ȥʤ䤹͡նɽ (euphemism) ȯãΤǤ롥ѸǤפ̣ˤȤޤʤŪѤƤʤ־פθ礫顤¯ (slang) ȤǤȤʤֲפθޤǡ¤Hughes (242) ɹΰѤȤơΤ褦˵󤲤Ƥ롥

   reproduction
   generation
   copulation
   coition
   intercourse
   congress
   intimacy
   carnal knowledge
   coupling
   pairing
   mating
at roughly which point the line is drawn, below which are found:
   shagging
   banging
   bonking
   fucking


岼2ʬ뤪褽5ܤ˰Ƥ뤬ϲΥ饹°Ū¿ڤʤ񤯤ΤߤΤ¿ΤǡƾάƤȤȤߤΤ򤤤ĤǾҲ𤹤 beast with two backs, bum dancing, bottom wetting, a squirt and a squeeze ʤɡŪ¯켭ŵ᤯äƤߤСɴϤʤ¿Υ饹ˡ
岼ʬΰ֤ˤĤƤϡ⤽Ū뤳ȤϤǤʤȽǤϸĿͤˤäƤۤʤ뤷ˤäƤѲƤ餯֤ǤλǧϤ餫ۤʤĴ٤ƤߤС̣̻Ūˤʤꤽ

Hughes, Geoffrey. Swearing: A Social History of Foul Language, Oaths and Profanity in English. London: Penguin, 1998.

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2021-09-15 Wed

#4524. δñѸ in English٤Ϣ7֤ʤ know high ˤȯʤʸΡ [notice][sobokunagimon][rensai][silent_letter][spelling][pronunciation][spelling_pronunciation_gap][link]

NHK饸ֺ¡δñѸ in Englishפ10ΥƥȤȯȤʤޤϢܤƤֱѸΥܥʵפ7ȤʤäƤޤϡ֤ʤ know high ˤȯʤʸΡפǤ

δñѸ in English2021ǯ10



ѸˤֻǤϽ񤫤ƤΤȯʤʸȤΤޤ͡ۻ (silent_letter) ȸƤФ졤Ѹ˴ؤѤʵ֤ȤäƤ褤ǤŪͳȤƤϤʥѥ󤬤ΤǤǤ¿ΤĤƤϤʸȯƤȤѥǤΤαѸǤϡknow ϡ֥Υסhigh ϡ֥ҡҡפʤɤȤ٤ʸ̤ȯƤΤȯѲˤβäƤޤäȤ¿ΤǤΰֻϸŤޤޤ˿֤졤ߤޤǥӤΤ褦ĤäƤȤ櫓ǤפˡֻȯѲɤĤƤʤäȤǤ͡
ȴϢơʲεȯŸԤȤɤǤߤƤѸֻˤϡۻ¿Ǥ

#4164. ʤ know ֻˤȯʤ k ΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-09-20-1])
#122. /kn/ ǻϤޤñ ([2009-08-27-1])
#1095. acknowledge Ǥ <kn> /kn/ Ȥȯ ([2012-04-26-1])
#3675. kn k æ벻Ѳβ ([2019-05-20-1])
#1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1])
#210. ֻȯЪΥˤ ([2009-11-23-1])
#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1])
#2085. <ough> β ([2015-01-11-1])
#2590. <gh> ޤñˤĤƤס ([2016-05-30-1])
#2292. ֻȯϥפǤĤʤ줿2ۤΥܡȡ ([2015-08-06-1])

[ | ѥڡ ]

2021-09-14 Tue

#4523. --- ޸ο򤯤̤ĤäưΥƥ꡼ [inflection][conjugation][ilame][verb][noun][category][tense][mood][person]

űѸʰˤ˻ϤޤѸ򤫤Ƥܴۤ뤷޸οϡѸˤ˾νäȤäƤ褤ˤѸθȤƤ෿Ҥä֤äƤޤäȤäƤǤϤʤȤ櫓̾졤ư졤ƻη絬Ϥʺ;ʤ졤ʻȷӤĤƤʸˡƥ꡼ (category) Ȥؤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
̾ˤĤƤСűѸǤ (gender) (number) (case) 3ƥ꡼λ̰ΤȤ٤ǽƤѸǤϤ褽ȳʤΥƥ꡼岽üˤ餵졤ͥȤʤäƺ˻롥
ưˤĤƤϡűѸǤϿ; (person) (number)ˡ (mood) (tense) ǽŪä޸οιȤ졤ʳΥƥ꡼θ礬ޤä٤ƤΥƥ꡼ޤӤƤȤϤṲ̄ͥΤϻǤ롥
Lass (161) ϡḽѸưΥƥ꡼Ūʶ̤ȤΤ褦˿޼

TENSE  pres.  MOOD  ind.  NUM.  sing.   PERS.   1, 2      -0
                                                                         
                                                                          3     -s
                                                                           
                                                  pl.    
                                                                       
                              subj./imp. 
        
        
         past   -d

ưꤹǽץƥ꡼ȤƻפˤƤˡ̤ʤȤʤäƤ롥Lass (159--61) ˸űѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹбޤ⤢롥Ӥȷκ褯ʬ롥

Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." 1476--1776. Vol. 3 of The Cambridge History of the English Language. Ed. Roger Lass. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-06-01-1]

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2021-09-13 Mon

#4522. βؤ̤ [phonetics][voice_quality][paralinguistics]

(voice quality) ϡءؤδϡ̣ѤؤδͿʤ˼ŪʸݤȤƤꡤʳŪʸۤȤɤʤƤʤ֡ɡȴ褦ȯ򤹤פȤïϥϥܥפȤ褦ϤȤʹ뤬ȤäƸؤȤɤطΤϼǤϤʤȯʤȤդƽ뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤϤʤ
Cruttenden (302) ˤСȤϼΤ褦ʤΤؤ

The term 'voice quality' refers to positions of the vocal organs which characterise speakers' voices on a long-term basis. Long-term tendencies in positioning the tongue and the soft palate are referred to as ARTICULATORY SETTINGS; those referring to positions of the vocal cords are called PHONATION TYPES.


ǵ󤲤Ƥ2ϡܸǤС幽פȡӤλȤפۤɤȤʤ幽פˤĤƤС㤨Сʥꥹ˱ѸʿŪȤȡڥüԤ幽ǡüԤ幽ϸȤޤꥫѸüԤˤɡηꡤꥹѸΤʤǤסȯɡηȤե󥹸ɥĸϡꥹѸ٤Ĵḥ̂Ȥ⤤롥
ӤλȤפ˴ؤƤϡ©ϳʢ䤭ۤ΢ʤɤΥꥨ󤬤롥üԸĿͤȯʤˤȤɤޤʤ㤨Сϥǥޡ䥪üԤ¿ʹ졤ʢϥåȥɱѸ䥳åˡüԤ¿ʹȤ줴ȤʤȤΤ褦
嵭Ϥݤå٥äΤ褦ˤפ롥βؤؤ̤ʬȤäƤ褤

Cruttenden, Alan. Gimson's Pronunciation of English. 8th ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2014.

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2021-09-12 Sun

#4521. Ѹ˾μפ첻Ѳ [sound_change][vowel][phonetics][phonology][diphthong][gvs][r]

#3386. Ѹ˾μפʻҲѲ ([2018-08-04-1]) 첻Ǥ񤤤ƤʤäΤǡϱѸˤˤ첻βѲˤĤơפʤΤޤȤ᤿
ȤϤäƤ⡤Ѹ˾βѲϡ#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻򶯲Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) ⼨褦ˡ첻ѲΤۤäȼ䵬ϤäơμѲˤޤȤ夲Τ񤷤ǡCruttenden (72) ˽äơűѸȸѸ첻ηϤоȤȤ˺ΩĥݥȤ6󤲤뤳Ȥǡ̤βȤ

(1) OE rounded front vowels [yː, ʏ] were lost by ME (following even earlier loss of [øː, œ]).
(2) Vowels in weakly accented final syllables (particularly in suffixes) were elided or obscured to [ə] or [ɪ] in ME or eModE.
(3) All OE long vowels closed or diphthongised in eModE or soon after.
(4) Short vowels have remained relatively stable. The principal exception is the splitting of ME [ʊ] into [ʌ] and [ʊ], the latter remaining only in some labial and velar contexts.
(5) ME [a] was lengthened and retracted before [f,θ,s] in the eighteenth century.
(6) The loss of post-vocalic [r] in the eighteenth century gave rise to the centring diphthongs /iə,eə,ɔə,ʊə/ (later /ɔə/ had merged with /ɔː/ by 1950 and /eə/ became /ɛː/ by 2000). The pure vowel /ɜː/ arose in the same way and the same disappearance of post-vocalic [r] introduced /ɑː,ɔː/ into new categories of words, e.g. cart, port


(3) 첻ܡ (gvs) ˴ϢѲǤ롤
Ѹ˾¿첻ѲΤʤDzŻ뤷ͭյȤ뤫ȤΤϤʤʤ񤷤ʤΤƾιܤ˹ʤä󼨤̯Ǽ롥˻ͤˤʤꥹȤǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ

Cruttenden, Alan. Gimson's Pronunciation of English. 8th ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2014.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-09-10-1]

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2021-09-11 Sat

#4520. Oxford 3000, Oxford 5000, OPAL θ [lexicology][lexicography][dictionary][keyword][statistics]

#4518. OALD10 ѸΥ졼٥15 ([2021-09-09-1]) ǤҲ𤷤ǯ Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English ̾ OALDˤ10ǤǤ줿ȤȤ˿ʲ³뤳μΥե1ͤȤƤϡʸʾϿŪʬˤܤƤޤΤϢ Oxford 3000, Oxford 5000, OPAL ȸƤФѸؽͭѤʸðҲ𤷤OALD10 x--xi ˳ơβ⤬롥

The Oxford 3000TM
20줫ʤ The Oxford English Corpus ˤ٤˴ŤѸؽԤռԤޤ줿ñ3000ĤΰƱѥϡꥹѸȥꥫѸΤߤʤ餺Ѹ夷Ƥ롥2000DZѸƥȤ8θä򥫥СƤȤ⤤뤬3000ΰ CEFR (= Common European Framework of Reference) A1 B2 ޤǤοǰƬˤˤʤꥹȤɤǤ롥

The Oxford 5000TM
The Oxford 3000 ι⤤CEFR B2 C1 ޤǤθäޤ᤿ĥǤñ嵭Ʊ˥Ǥ롥

The Oxford Phrasal Academic LexiconTM
"OPAL" άΤƤ롤ؽѱѸ (English for Academic Purposes) ͭѤʸáؤιֵߥʡݡȡ´ʤɤαѸǰƬԤޤ줿ñǤ롥ΰϡ񤭸եѥ The Oxford Corpus of Academic English (= OCAE) äեѥ The British Academic Spoken English (= BASE) 򥽡Ȥ (keyword) ʬϤ˴ŤΤǡؽѱѸνΩñǤ롥饢Ǥ롥

򺣤αѸؽϼ¤ŪʳŪˤʤäƤʤȴФѸءѸˤΥǥߥåʸˤƤäپȤΤϴܻǤ뤫顤˳Ѥ

Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. 10th ed. Ed. A. S. Hornby. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2020.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-10-24-1]

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2021-09-10 Fri

#4519. "ecolinguistics" Ȥʬ [ecolinguistics][linguistics][biology][world_languages][language_death]

Ƕ褯褦ˤʤä ecolinguistics ȤѸ졥ήԸʤΤȤʤȥɤǻäʤäꤹ뤬Ϥ褯ʬäƤʤȸؤγݤ碌ȤȤʬ뤬̣ƤΤ
Phillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas (318) ˤȡ"ecolinguistics", "language ecology", "linguistic ecology" Ϥ褽ƱǤꡤΤ褦ʥǤ "ecology" ϴˤ "context" "language environment" ؤΤȤޤˡִĶפǤϡִĶפȤϲʤΤȤȡߥޥμҲŪŪкѳŪŪطʤΤȤȤƤľˡήԸǤ᥿եʤΤǡΤȤϥȤƤ롥ɤΤȤ褯ʬʤ
ȤδϢǤ "ecology" äȸ̩˹ͤƤԤ⾯ʤʤPhillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas ¤ϤΤ褦ʹͤΤ褦ǡʪŪʪŪӼҲŪĶפΤȤªƤ褦 (319) ȤδϢǡּҲŪפȤΤʬ褦ʵΤʪŪפȤΤϤɤȤɤ Phillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas ϡܵǸäƤ롥
Phillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas μĥ󤹤Τ񤷤#601. ¿ʪ¿ ([2010-12-19-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ȤȤƤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥פˡˤ¿ʪ¿ʬۤشطˤȤ¤˴ŤۤΤ褦ξǡʪ¿ݻ뤿μϿʹ֤θΤʤѤƤꡤԤºŤ뤳ȤˤäԤݤ롤ȤΩȤäƤ롥¿ξüˤʪ¿ξüˤľ뤹롤Ȥ
εˤĤƤɤͤФ褤ΤʬʤޤޤʤΤǡޤ Phillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas (323--24) ε򤽤ΤޤްѤƤ

Most of the world's megabiodiversity is in areas under the management or guardianship of Indigenous peoples. Most of the world's linguistic diversity resides in the small languages of Indigenous peoples. Much of the detailed knowledge of how to maintain biodiversity, including TEK [= traditional ecological knowledge], is encoded in the language of Indigenous peoples. If we continue as now, most of the world's Indigenous languages will be gone by 2100. ICSU [= International Council for Science] states (2002) that "actions are urgently needed to enhance the intergenerational transmission of local and Indigenous knowledge...Traditional knowledge conservation, therefore, must pass through the pathways of conserving language (as language is an essential tool for culturally-appropriate encoding of knowledge)." Since TEK is necessarily encoded into the local languages of the peoples whose knowledge it is, this means that if these local languages disappear (without the knowledge being transferred to other, bigger languages, which it isn't) the knowledge is lost. By killing the languages we kill the prerequisites for maintaining biodiversity. Ecolinguistic diversity is essential because it enhances creativity and adaptability and thus stability.


ʪŪʪŪʥȼҲŪŪϥ󥯤ƤΤȤӤ򤷤Ϥɤͤޤ

Phillipson, Robert and Tove Skutnabb-Kangas. "English, Language Dominance, and Ecolinguistic Diversity Maintenance." Chapter 16 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 313--32.

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2021-09-09 Thu

#4518. OALD10 ѸΥ졼٥15 [world_englishes][variety][lexicography][dictionary]

ǯѸؽѤαѱѼ Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English 10 (= OALD10) Ǥ줿4Ǥ5ǤκĹ餯äˤʤäƤ뼭ΤΤߤʤ餺 CD/DVD Ǥ󶡤ˤʤäƤȻפ䡤10ǤǤϥǥΤۤʤդΥ饤ǤΤߤ󶡤ȤʤäƤ롥ѤäΤŸʺǤѤ餺ߤʤΤǡѥѥ᤯äƤϡƤȤȤˡ˼ڤǤ롥
OALD Ū˥ꥹѸפȤ뵭Ҥɾ뤬̵Ǥʤ¸ߤǤ륢ꥫѸεҤˤϤ䤤Ƥаޤ롥˺򺣤 World Englishes λȤȤ⤢ꡤνѼθäԻˤΩĤ褦ˤʤäƤºݡ10ǤǤϡ "English across the world" ꤹ륳बǺܤƤ롥ФȤ "The spread of English" "Englishes, not English" Ȥʸߤ롥ԤƬϼ̤ꡥ

English is spoken as a first language by more than 350 million people throughout the world, and used as a second language by as many, if not more. One in five of the world's population speaks English with some degree of competence. It is an official or semi-official language in over 70 countries, and it plays a significant role in many more.


³ϰ褴Ȥ˱ѸѼ郎ñ˲⤵ƤΤǻѤѼ򼨤졼٥Ʊ˾Ҳ𤵤롥Ѽ졼٥ΰϸ֤˵ܤƤ뤬Ƹȼ̤15बǧ롥BrE (= British English), NEngE (= Northern England English), ScotE (= Scottish English), WelshE (= Welsh English), IrishE (= Irish English), US (= American English), CanE (= Canadian English), NAmE (= North American English), AustralE (= Australian English), NZE (= New Zealand English), SAfrE (= South African English), WAfrE (= West African English), EAfrE (= East African English), IndE (= Indian English (the English of South Asia)), SEAsian E (= South-East Asian English)
World Englishes ϰ١ʬȤƤɸŪǥХ󥹤ΤȤ줿ΤȤäƤ褤Ūꥹϼ⡤Τ褦θ򼨤ˤʤäƤΤʤ

Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. 10th ed. Ed. A. S. Hornby. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2020.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-10-24-1] [2021-09-11-1]

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2021-09-08 Wed

#4517. World Englishes θؤΰ狼 [world_englishes][dialectology][dialect][variety]

Ϣ World Englishes ʱѸѼˤε񤤤Ƥ뤬ѤƤ͡ʱѸνѼȤϰ̤ѸǤбѸνˤۤʤʤ (dialect) ΤȤѼ (variety) ȸƤؤƤΤϡ¿ʤȤмDz¤ʼҲؤδȤ٤ΤǡؽŪʸʬ뤳Ȥ򤷤ĤĻѤƤ뤬ƤξϡפΤۤʬ䤹ϻפäƤ롥
ǤϡWorld Englishes θϱѸΡء (dialectology) ȤߤƤ褤ΤȤȡ Yes No ȤȤؽѸξ "dialectology" ȤѸ⡤ˤäƼ깤ĤƤ롥"English dialectology" Ȥˤϡꥹ䥢ꥫνθؤΤŵŪǤꡤȤХɱѸ䥸ޥѸθؤ "English dialectology" ȤϸʤؽѤ⤢äƤʤȤ⤢Τ濴ѸȤäƤ褤
Τ褦ʼ깤ơϰˤäѰۤ͡ʱѸפΤȤ "dialect(s)" ȤߤʤΩСɱѸ䥸ޥѸơ1Ĥ "dialect" ˰㤤ʤ򸦵椹뤳Ȥ "English dialectology" ˹׸뤳Ȥˤʤߡɤ餽Τ褦ʸϴǤ롥ɱѸ䥸ޥѸθ "World Englishes" θȤƸڤΤǤ롥Τ褦ʸƤؤˡѸؤΡְǡפָ롤ȤäƤ褤⤷ʤENL Ѽ ESL Ѽ͡ǰۤʤΤȤȤ⡤Ϥ̤ο¤ޤǤ褦ˤפΤǡˤĤƤʾεϹƤ
嵭ƧޤĤĤϡŪ "English dialectology" ȡ򺣤Ȥߤ٤Ƥ "World Englishes" θϡä᤹ܶ٤ȹͤƤ롥Υꥹ䥢ꥫǺʬƤ䡤ꥹˤƸűѸ줫鸽Ѹޤ¿ͤ¸ߤƤŪʽˤߤ˭٤ѰۤWorld Englishes ֤ˤߤ˭٤Ѱۤ٤ơˤƤ̤ˤƤäƤȤϻפʤǤ롥ŪʵϤǤСΰѤˤʤꥹ䥢ꥫαѸζʬۤѸȤ٤뤳Ȥϡֳʰ㤤פΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤݡѸ줬顤㤨Х֥ƥǰƬˤƤ⡤ŪѰۤϻפΤۤ˭äΤǤ롥
嵭λιͤȤ褽Ʊݤ Anderwald (265) θѤ롥

Perhaps most importantly, the recent dialectological and sociolinguistic study of non-standard varieties has shown the enormous breadth of variation that English in Britain and the United States already demonstrates. Whenever we find patterns in World Englishes that diverge from standard British or American English, it is of the utmost importance to take this internal variability into consideration. Bearing in mind Chambers's idea of vernacular universals, comparing constructions in Englishes worldwide with just the codified standard(s) is comparing apples with oranges, or, worse, with just one orange. We might find that what looks like an exotic feature of a variety of English in the southern, eastern or other hemisphere, is perhaps mirrored in an isolated dialect area in the Scottish Highlands, in a village in Ireland, or in an undocumented variety of the English Midlands. The call thus is for researchers of World Englishes to take note of the extensive dialectological work that is currently underway on varieties in non-standard 'homeland' varieties, to avoid this kind of mismatch, and ultimately misanalysis.


αѸ˸ˤ濴ŪʥơޤѸؤˤΤ츫ȤΥƤ褦ˤߤ븽 World Englishes ˴ؿ󤻤ƤΤϡΤ褦ͳǤ롥

Anderwald, Lieselotte. "World Englishes and Dialectology." Chapter 13 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 252--71.

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2021-09-07 Tue

#4516. ʤˤ˽Τ --- Chambers ο [gender][gender_difference]

ɸϼҲؤǺǤܤƤʤƸߤܤƤ1ĤǤꡤܥ֥Ǥ͡˰äƤ#1361. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ([2013-01-17-1])#1362. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ֡ ([2013-01-18-1])#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1])#3455. ʤˤ˽Τ --- 3ĤΩ ([2018-10-12-1]) Ϥᡤgender gender_difference γƵ򻲾Ȥ줿
Sharma ̤ͤΤäΤ̾ʼҲؼ Chambers ˴ؤơƹۤȯɽƤ餷ʿȤϤäƤ Chambers (2009) ΤΤǡ䤬åץǡȤƤʤäˡSharma (236) ¹Ǽ餹뤬Chambers (138) 2Ĥβ󼨤Ƥ롥

a. GENDER-BASED VARIABILITY (social organization)
   "[I]n societies where gender roles are sharply differentiated such that one gender has wider social contacts and greater geographical range, the speech of the less circumscribed gender will include more variants from the contiguous social groups".
b. SEX-BASED DIFFERENCE (biology)
   "[T]he neuropsychological verbal advantage of females results in sociolinguistic discrepancies such that women use a larger repertoire of variants and command a wider range of styles than men of the same social groups even though gender roles are similar or identical".


Τ˽θ˴ؤ٤ơҲŪˤʪŪ̲줿ȤʤäƤ롥

Sharma, Devyani. "World Englishes and Sociolinguistics." Chapter 12 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 232--51.
Chambers, J. Sociolinguistic Theory. Rev. ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

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2021-09-06 Mon

#4515. <gn> ȯ [phonetics][consonant][spelling][phoneme][nasal][etymological_respelling][analogy][silent_letter]

Ѹֻ <gn> ˤĤơƬ˸륱ˤĤƤ <kn> Ȥδط#3675. kn k æ벻Ѳβ ([2019-05-20-1]) εǴñ˿줿16--17 [gn] > [n] βȤȤäǤϡƬǤϤʤ <gn> ֻġ˥ե󥹸졦ƥͳθˤĤơֻȯδط˴ؤƤʤбCarney (247, 325) 򻲾ȤƤߤ褦
ޤ <gn(e)> ˤ󤲤Ƥߤ褦arraign, assign, benign, campaign, champagne, cologne, deign, design, ensign, impugn, malign, reign, resign, sign ʤɤ󤬤äƤ롥θˤƤ <g> ۻȤƵǽƤꡤ̤Ȥ <gn(e)> /n/ δطȤʤäƤ롥ʤߤ foreign sovereign Ūֻǡ㤤ޤ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) 뤤 (analogy) λʪȤ롥
嵭ñ췲ˤƤ <g> <n> δ֤˲ᶭȯ /g/ /n/ ̡ȯ뤳Ȥ¿assignation, benignant, designate, malignant, regnant, resignation, signature, significant, signify ̤ꡥ
嵭ñ췲ΥȤʤϤƤե󥹸Ǥ롥ե󥹸Ǥ <gn> ϹŸɡ [ɲ] б뤬ѸǤ [ɲ] ΩǤǤϤʤᡤѸ˼ޤݤˤϡɡ [n] Ѥ줿[ɲ] ˶ᤤȤƱѸˤ [nj] ⤢ΤŪ˸ˤϸʤ§ʤΤǡŪ [n] ˽夷Ȥˤʤ롥ʤǤʤ /nj/ Ǽޤ줿⤢롥㤨Сcognac, lorgnette, mignonette, vignette ʤɤǤ롥ꥢ줫 Bologna, Campagna Ʊ͡poignant ˤĤƤϡ/nj/ Τۤ /n/ ȯ⤢롥
ֻˤĤ̯ʤȤäΤϡե󥹸 ligne ͳ褹 line Ǥ롥ǤХե󥹸 signe Ѹ˼ޤ <sign> /saɪn/ Ȥ夷褦ˡligne ѸǤ <lign> /laɪn/ ۤɤ夷ƤϤ롥ԤˤĤƤϱѸŪֻ§§ä <line> ֤ؤƸߤ˻롥ƬĤưˤäƤ <align> ֻ̤ʤ aline ʤǤϤʤˤǤ뤷̤ sign/assign Ȥڥ⸫ˡ<line> ϤʤȤ̯Ǥ롥
line/align Ȥ촴ֻͭΥϥϡۤˤ deign/disdain feign/feint ˸ (Upward and Davidson 140)

Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

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2021-09-05 Sun

#4514. code-switching convergence [terminology][code-switching][bilingualism][multilingualism][borrowing][world_englishes]

Ϣ World Englishes Υϥɥ֥åɤ߿ʤƤ롥夲Τ "World Englishes, Code-Switching, and Convergence" ꤹϤѸ2 (bilingualism) 뤤¿ (multilingualism) δĶѤ뤳Ȥ¿̤θŪѡȥ꡼2¿˸ѼԤɤ̤αѸѼѤƲä뵡¿ҲˤơʣλѤδоŪ2ĤΤȤ롥
1Ĥϡ̤2ĤθȤɤڤؤʤäʤ code-switching Ǥ롥ȤƸ³뤳Ȥˤäơʿ̤ȤƳ˻Ǥ2ĤθμΩݤ롥
̤2ĤθǤ򺮤롤뤤ϸߤ˶뤳ȤˤäƳȤȤƳ˻ȤȤ⤢줬 convergence ȸƤФΤǤ롥ǤϳƸμΩϾʤ롥
Τ褦 code-switching convergence ϡȤƱ褦ʼҲŪﲼΤΡȿФƤ롥ξԤΤ褦ʴطˤäȤϡޤǵŤʤäBullock et al. (218) ꡤˤĤƤսѤ褦

Bilingual speech comprises diverse types of language mixing phenomena, of which CS [= code-switching] is but one example. Another process that may arise in bilingual speech is convergence. CS is characterized by divergence; it is the alternation between linguistic systems that are kept distinct. In convergence, on the other hand, the perceived distance between the language systems is narrowed such that they become structurally more similar, sometimes to the extreme point that the boundaries between languages collapse. In such cases, it is quite possible that the structural constraints that once functioned to preserve the autonomy of the languages while a speaker code-stitches between them are gradually abandoned. As bilingual speakers perceive more overlap between languages, they may mix more liberally between them.


code-switching convergence Ϥޤǿ޼ŪŪʤΤǤꡤºݾξԤζ̤ۣǤꡤϢ³ΤξüΤ򤷤ƤΤǤϡ#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])#2009. ؤˤܿġ2ѡѡ ([2014-10-27-1]) ʤɤǤߤcode-switching ʤΤѤʤΤ̤ƤȤˤؤäƤ롥

Bullock, Barbara E., Lars Hinrichs, and Almeida Jacqueline Toribio. "World Englishes, Code-Switching, and Convergence." Chapter 11 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 211--31.

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2021-09-04 Sat

#4513. indigenised Englishes English creoles ΰ㤤٤ꡩ [esl][creole][variety][world_englishes][new_englishes][language_shift][contact]

ŪˤХɱѸ䥤ɱѸΤ褦 "indigenised Englishes" ϡظȱѸȤθܿӸ (language_shift) η̤ȤѼǤꡤѸȤΰŪʴطݤƤȤ롥ʥ Saramaccan Τ褦 "English creoles" ϡѸȤθܿȤƤ뤬󶡸ǤѸȤľܤΰŪʴطΤʤѼȤ (cf. #463. Ѹ١Υԥȥ쥪ΰ ([2010-08-03-1]))
嵭 indigenised Englishes English creoles 椵ݤνλǤ롥פ˥쥪ܿ㳰ŪʥȤȤ館ΩɽŪԤȤ Thomason and Kaufman 󤲤Ƥ
ǯǤ indigenised Englishes English creoles ΰ㤤ϡθ򤬼ĥ褦ܼΰ㤤ǤϤʤ٤ˤʤΤǤϤʤȤäƤƤ롥Τ褦ʸѤ Winford (196) ˼򷹤褦

This recognition has led to a growing rapport between the study of the New Englishes and the study of English-lexicon creoles in the last couple of decades. It has given impetus to an earlier tradition of research concerned with the relationship between the two types of contact Englishes, which dates back to the 1980s . . . . The links between the two fields have more recently been reaffirmed in the work of scholars . . . . It is now generally acknowledged that the creation of the New Englishes shares a great deal in common with creole formation, with regard to both the socio-historical circumstances and the processes of change that were involved. The challenge facing us is to show how these two dimensions of language shift---the socio-historical and the linguistic---interact in the emergence of contact varieties. On the one hand, the diversity of outcomes that resulted from the spread of English to various colonies provides support for Thomason and Kaufman's claim that 'it is the sociolinguistic history of the speakers, and not the structure of their language, that is the primary determinant of the linguistic outcome of language contact' (1988: 35). At the same time, the emergence and evolution of contact Englishes supports the view that different outcomes are also constrained by the same principles and processes of change that operate in shift situations generally. All of this suggests that the division between 'indigenized English' and 'creoles' is essentially an artificial one, since we find diversity within each group and significant overlap between the two.


Winford ˤȤäƤϡindigenised Englishes English creoles ΰ㤤٤ǤꡤѤκǸˤ̤ꡤ͹Ūʶʬˤʤ褦Winford Ϥ1θ塤Schneider "Dynamic Model" 򻲾ȤƵ³ƤΥǥˤĤƤϡ#4497. ݥȥ˥ѸѼ˴ؤ Schneider Dynamic Model ([2021-08-19-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Winford, Donald. "World Englishes and Creoles." Chapter 10 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 194--210.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.

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2021-09-03 Fri

#4512. ƱѸӤ롼ѸΥ [keyword][corpus][ice][flob][frown]

ʣΥѥѤʬϤϡⲿ٤ԤʤäȤ (cf. keyword) ΥѥħŪ˸륭ɤ̤ΰŪʥѥȤˤäŪȴФƤˡǡޤȸʸŪʴ餪⤷̤Ф롥
ϡPolzenhagen and Wolf ͤɤǤơICE (International Corpus of English) 󶡤륫롼ѸΥѥ饭ɤȴФĴҲ𤵤ƤΤ򸫤ĤΤǡҲ𤷤ΤλȥѥȤơꥹѸ FLOB ȥꥫѸ FROWN ѤƤ롥
ơĴη̤롼ѸΥɤȤưʲñ췲̤⤫Ӿ夬äƤȤ (161)

community
communal
family
relative
kin / kinship / kinsman / kinspeople
brotherhood
marriage
marry
marital
husband
wife
parent / parental / parenting
maternity / maternal
Birth
child / childhood / childless
Offspring

̣ξȤƶ̹򤯤ФСֿ²פȡֶƱΡפȤäȤ롼Ҳθ餫ˤʤäƤȤäƤ褤̱²ǧοؤˤƶͿƤ붽̣̤Ȥ롥ΤλȥݥȤѼʸˤǤ뤳ȡĤޤ̤ŪʤΤǤ뤳Ȥϡ˰ռƤɬפ

Polzenhagen, Frank and Hans-Georg Wolf, "World Englishes and Cognitive Linguistics." Chapter 8 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 147--72.

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2021-09-02 Thu

#4511. ǰ᥿եϥݡĤǤ [conceptual_metaphor][metaphor]

ѸǤܸǤ⥹ݡĤ˵ɽݡİʳΰŪѤȤȤ¿ (cf. #4480. ƥ˥Ѹθ츻줳 ([2021-08-02-1])) θˤƤ⡤ݡĤͳ褹ɽ˭٤
㤨 Polzenhagen and Wolf (157) ΰѤȤʤ뤬2006ǯ George W. Bush ˤĤƥեȤɽڤơΤ褦ɽȤ

And they [the Democrats] just --- as I said, they're dancing in the end zone. They just haven't scored the touchdown, Mark, you know; there's a lot of time left.


μɽŪǤꡤ"POLITICS IS SPORTS" Ȥǰ᥿ե (conceptual_metaphor) ΩƤƺ٤ʤγǰ᥿եΩͳȤơPolzenhagen and Wolf (157--58) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롤

   There are obvious reasons why these sports lend themselves as source domains for conceptualizing the political scene, and elections in particular: They highlight notions like competition, strategies, teamwork, and winning and losing. They are played in seasons. Furthermore, sports events are public events involving players and supporters, and they have a strong emotive component. They hence provide a rich conceptual structure that can be readily mapped onto the domain of politics, and the various mappings have been worked out in the literature referred to above. However, from a CS [= Cognitive Sociolinguistics] perspective, it is not merely the structural properties of the source domain and the enormous popularity of these sports that need to be considered in order to account for the pervasiveness of the metaphors under analysis. . . .
   . . . .
   The baseball creed hooked up with American cultural keywords . . . like the American Dream (success through perseverance), the myth of classlessness of American society (a supposedly democratizing sport that is open to anyone regardless of social standing), the belief of American exceptionalism (an allegedly genuine American sport), and others. This way, baseball was made a perfect embodiment of American freedom and the American way of life.


ѤθȾϡ夬ꥫʸˤƤɤΤ褦˰֤ŤƤ뤫ɾΤȤɤߤ롥

Polzenhagen, Frank and Hans-Georg Wolf, "World Englishes and Cognitive Linguistics." Chapter 8 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 147--72.

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2021-09-01 Wed

#4510. §Ȥ¾ưǤʤŪά륱 [verb][syntax][semantics][reflexive_pronoun][ellipsis]

§Ȥ¾ưȤѤư줬Ūȼʤޤޤ롥ʸ̮Ū줬餫ʾ礬¿ˡ̤ˤʤȡϤָ§Ȥ¾ưפȤ٥Ķơּưˡ⤢פذܹԤȤȤ館ۤʾ⤢դϾήưŪǤ롥
Quirk ʡ10.4) ꡤŵŪ¾ưȤѤưˤŪ줬ά4פ󤲤褦

(1) A specific object is recoverable from the preceding linguistic context:

   A: Show me your essay. B: I'll show you later.
   Let's do the dishes. I'll wash and you dry.

In such instances the verb may be analysed as genuinely transitive with ellipsis of the direct object.

(2) A specific object is understood from the situational context:

   Keep off [sign on grass]
   Shake well before use.
   Watch!
   Don't touch.
   The tie doesn't fit.

(3) A specific reflexive object is understood when the verb allows such an object . . . .:

   I'm shaving.
   They're dressing.

Some verbs allow omission of either a reflexive or a nonreflexive object: She's washing (herself or the clothes).

(4) A nonspecific object is semantically entailed . . .:

   Are you eating again?
   Do you drink?
   He teaches.
   I don't want to catch you smoking again.
   They can't spell.
   I can't come now, because I'm cleaning.
   I don't want to read.

The range of understood nonspecific objects is restricted with some verbs when they are used intransitively. For example, Do you drink? refers to the drinking of alcoholic drinks, I'm cleaning refers to domestic cleaning and not (say) to cleaning teeth or cleaning a pipe, and to catch you smoking again normally excludes (say) smoking fish.


Τ褦ʿ񤤤򼨤Ū¾ưˤϡŪʸ줬¿ȤդŪǤФɤפȤä鲿ɤΤŵŪʤΤְפȤä鲿ΤŵŪʤΤȤҲŪʥե졼䥹ץȤƱ춦ƱǼΤΤȤƶͭƤ뤫դ˸СɤŪ줬άƤ뤫Ĵ̤ơҲΥץȥŪʹư򤢤֤Ф뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

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