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2011-02-28 Mon

#672. ¤ŪˤߤѸޥ [literature][romance][formula]

[2011-02-26-1], [2011-02-27-1]εǻȤ Wittig ϡѸޥ󥹤 formula ǽŪñ̤Ȥư֤ŤԤǤ롥Wittig εˤϹ¤λǻȿǤƤꡤä˼2ˤƸ롥
1Ĥϡformula "a kind of mental template, in the mind of the poet, a pattern-making device which generates a series of derivative forms" (Wittig 29) ȤߤʤƤǤ롥ιͤˤȡformula Ȥط ( syntagm ) ɽ魯ַפΤȤǤꡤط ( paradigm ) ˤزǽʸ緲1ĤήǤ椯ȤˤäƤɽ¸Ȥ롥㤨 al thus in boke as as we rede ȤޤʸϡʲΡַפγƥåȤŬʸ򤷤ƤϤƤä̤Ǥȹͤ롥

Romance Formula: Syntagm and Paradigm

⤦1Ĥƹ¤ŪʤΤϡ嵭Τ褦٥η "syntagmeme" ̾դƥޥ󥹤ι¤ʤǾñ̤Ȱ֤ŤȤǡָزǽ椫פȤͤ礭ñ̤ؤȳĥƤ椯Ǥ롥㤨Сޥ󥹤ˤϡּ͸λפȤ̤롥ξ̤ΤϡְԤˤ뻦δߡסоסŨĩסŨȤ襤סֻפȤϢνǤꡤ줾νñ̤ "motifeme" ȸƤФ롥 motifeme ˤ͡ variation ѰդƤꡤޤ motifeme ֤ν֤ϷޤäƤ롥ήफΤ褦˾̤Ƥ椯ˡּ͸λפȤ̤켫Τ礭ʹñ "type-scene" Ȥʤꡤּ͸פȤ⤦1Ĥ type-scene ȹ蘆äơ礭ʹñ "type-episode" Ȥʤ롥εϤñ̤ˤƤָزǽ椫פȤƱ츶§ŬѤƤꡤñ̤Ѥ߽ŤͤˤǽŪʪ줬Ȥ̣ǡƹ¤ŪʹͤȤ롥
Wittig ϡ"Dame," he said Τ褦ñ formula ʬϤϤᡤ礭ñ̤ؤʬϤؤѤ߾夲Ƥ椭ȤѸޥ󥹤˶̤2Ф type-episode Ϣͤߤ᤿"love-marriage" Ϣ "separation-restoration" ϢǤ롥Wittig (177) ϡѸޥ󥹤ηϤ2ФϢȤ߹蘆äƤȤȤǤȸڤ롥
Ѹޥ󥹤Ǥϡlove marriage δ֤ɬȼseparation ˤ륢ǥƥƥӼˤ restoration ʤβˤˤտ魯롥2ФϢѸޥ󥹤μפ "generating forces" Ǥꡤع¤顤򷿤ʪĤġɽع¤򻺽ФƤ椯ưϤʤΤǤ롥
ǸˡWittig ε speculation ؤȵڤ֡Ѹޥ󥹤İδؿκ love-marriage separation-restoration äȲꤹȡϤʤʤΤ1ĤȤơlove-marriage ħϲ² separation-restoration ħ˷ϲ²Ȥͻ¤礭ʴؿäǤϤʤ
formula θŪʬϤ󥰥ɤβ²ѤؤŸ Wittig εɤǡ¤ȤΤϡʤ1ĤθȤ߹碌礭ʵꤢ뤳ȤʤΤȳؤ

Wittig, Susan. Stylistic and Narrative Structures in the Middle English Romances. Austin and London: U of Texas P, 1978.

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2011-02-27 Sun

#671. Ѹޥ󥹤ˤ formula εǽ [literature][romance][auchinleck][formula]

ε[2011-02-26-1]ǡѸޥ󥹤θˤ formula 礭ʳѤƤ뤫򸫤ޥ󥹤 formula ¿ѤطʤˤϡĤƤƤ롥1Ĥϡͭ̾ The Auchinleck Manuscript Υޥ󥹷˴Ϣä˸Ƥ뤳Ȥǡɥμ꤬ܡפ뤿ˡformula 򵡳Ū¿ѤȤ "a theory of bookshop composition and extensive textual borrowing" Ǥ (Wittig 13) ⤦1Ĥϡޥ󥹤ϡͷͤƬİȤտޤǺ줿ΤǤꡤθ̤ȰžΤ˷֤¿ʤΤϼȤ "the oral-transmission theory" Ǥ (Wittig 14)
Wittig Ͼ2ĤǤϤʤȼĥ롥ޥ󥹤󥰥ɤİ˼Τϡʬ꤭äʪζڤͽ¬ǽ formula ٤ʹ뤳Ȥˤꡤʪ줬Ҳθǧǧ¿뤳ȤǤǤϤʤޥ󥹤θʹϤȤ˼ҲФ뿮괶äƤꡤޥ󥹤Ƥ뤳Ȥˤäơݼ餹뤳Ȥ˻դɽƤΤǤϤʤäơҲѳפХޥ󥹤Ȥ뼫ΤƤ뤫ह뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ޥ󥹤θϡʹΥ󥹤θ "a language of stance" (Wittig 46) Ǥ롥Wittig Τμĥ󤵤줿

If the language does not serve to carry information, what then is its primary function? In addition to carrying a minimal amount of narrative information, the language carries at least one other level of social meaning as well. That is, it carries the additional messages which are encoded within the semiology of social gestures, the language of social ritual: leave-takings, greetings, meals and banquets, marriages and knightings and tournaments. Each one of the highly ritualized events to which the formulas themselves refer is also a kind of formulaic language, a complex system of significations which is as thoroughly understood and articulated in its own culture as that culture's natural language and which is indeed a language even though it may not be a verbal one. In the romances the language of the verse refers much of the time to this second-order system, and its message-bearing function is then doubled. The language of these narratives functions not only as a medium of narrative, but as a powerful social force which supports, reinforces, and perpetuates the social beliefs and customs held by the culture, perhaps long past their normal time of decline. (Wittig 45)


ǿ줿 The Auckinleck Manuscript ˤĤƤϰʲΥȤͭѤǤ롥

The Auchinleck Manuscript : National Library of Scotland
Auchinleck MS Home Page

Wittig, Susan. Stylistic and Narrative Structures in the Middle English Romances. Austin and London: U of Texas P, 1978.

Referrer (Inside): [2011-02-28-1]

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2011-02-26 Sat

#670. Ѹޥ󥹤ˤ formula γ [literature][romance][statistics][formula]

ޥ󥹤θ礭ħ1Ĥˡformula ¿Ѥ롥stock phrase Ȥַޤʸ硤פؤformula ˤϡɽꤷƶΤ顤äΥ٥ǤηŬ礷ƤФ褤Ȥ빭ΤޤǤ뤬¿ formula Milman Parry μȯƤ롥

A formula is "a group of words which is regularly employed under the same metrical conditions to express a given essential idea." (qtd in Wittig, p. 15 as from "Studies in the Epic Technique of Oral Verse-Making. I: Homer and Homeric Style." Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 41 (1930). page 80.)


formula ζ󤲤Ф꤬ʤ"'Dame,' he said", "that hendi knight", "feyre and free" ʤɤûΤ顤"He was a bolde man and a stowt", "And he were neuer so blythe of mode", "For to make the lady glade / That was bothe gentyll and small" ʤɤĹΤޤ͡Ǥ롥Wittig ˤСѸαʸޥ25ʤ Parry ξ̩ formula ޤԤȴФȤʲΤ褦ʷ̤줿

POEMLENGTHVERSE TYPEFORMULA RATE
Lai le freine340 linescouplet10%
Sir Landeval500couplet11
Sir Launfal1044tail-rhyme16
King Horn1644couplet18
Sir Degare1076couplet21
Havelok2822couplet21
Sir Isumbras804tail-rhyme22
Sir Amadace864tail-rhyme22
Sir Perceval2288tail-rhyme22
Horn Child1138tail-rhyme24
Roswall and Lillian885couplet25
Ocatvian (southern)1962tail-rhyme25
Sir Triamour1719tail-rhyme25
Earl of Toulous1224tail-rhyme26
Ywain and Gawayn4032couplet27
Sir Eglamour1377tail-rhyme29
Squyr of Lowe Degre1131couplet30
Lebeaus Desconus2131tail-rhyme30
Sir Torrent2669tail-rhyme31
Bevis of Hampton4332couplet34
Eger and Grime1474couplet35
Sir Degrevant1920tail-rhyme38
Octavian (northern)1731tail-rhyme39
Floris and Blancheflur1083couplet41
Emare1030tail-rhyme42


ʿѤȤȡƥƥȤԿ26.56% formula ޤǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥couplet ǤʿѤ24.82%tail-rhyme Ǥ27.93%纹ϤʤޤƥȤĹ formula Ԥγˤ϶ؤϤʤWittig θǤϡArthurTroyAlexander Τʤɤ "cycle" ϴޤޤƤʤȥƥȤꤷ̩ˤޤޤ줿夲ʤΤǡˤ˿ͤ夬ϤȤ
ޥ󥹤ΥƥȤ1/4 formula äƤȤȡİˤȤäƼˤɤΤ褦ʸ뤫ͽ¬ǽȤȤˤʤ롥ޤޥ󥹤ʪȤƤζڤ⤪褽ޤäƤΤǡİˤȤäơֿפ뵡˾ʤȹͤ롥ǤϡΤ褦ʥޥ󥹤ήԤΤϤʤİϥޥ󥹤˲ԤƤΤ

Wittig, Susan. Stylistic and Narrative Structures in the Middle English Romances. Austin and London: U of Texas P, 1978.

Referrer (Inside): [2011-02-28-1] [2011-02-27-1]

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2011-02-25 Fri

#669. ȯɽȱѸ [phonetics][phonology][phoneme][ipa]

ȯɽˤϡ礭ʬɽ ( phonetic transcription or narrow transcription ) ɽ ( phonemic transcription or broad transcription ) 2ब롥Ԥ [ ] ǰϤߡԤ / / ǰϤΤǤ롥ɽȲɽϸܤϻƤ뤬ܼŪˤϤޤäۤʤΤǤ롥ɽϡĴŪŪʴβεҤܻؤƤꡤ§ȤθǤβ̤ǽϹθƤʤǡɽϡʪŪ¦̤ϼξݤ§ȤθǤβ̤Ż뤹롥¤ؤˤСǵǽṲ̄Ƥ벻ñ̤ ( phoneme ) ȸƤФ졤ǤǾ ( minimal pair ) ˴ŤΩ ( opposition ) ˤäƸ̩롥ʤʹ¤Ω줫ϡǤĴŪŪȤ̵ǤꡤJakobson and Halle θ褦ˡ"all phonemes denote nothing but mere otherness" (11) Ǥ롥
ºݤΤȤȯɽϡɽȲɽߤߴäȤǼ¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ¿̩˲ɽܻؤȤСʪŪ;ȤʤɽʤФʤ餺̵οͤ䲻ڥȥ ( spectrogram ) ɽʤФʤʤʤ롥ǡ̩˲ɽܻؤȤƤ⡤ǤεäΩġֵǽŪΩפˤԤˤäʣ⤬뤷ĴŪʴǡƤ뤿ˡǽŪΩʤƤʤɤδطϰ̵뤵ƤޤȤˤʤ롥ǡسؽؤθǤ⡤ȲǤξιͤ褫 broad phonetic transcription Ȥ⤤٤ƤѤƤ롥[ ] ǰϤޤƤʤ鲻ŪǤäꡤ/ / ǰϤޤƤʤ鲻ŪǤäꤹ뤳ȤΤϡΤǤ롥
Ѹˤ˱ѸؤǤ⡤§ȤƤƤѤƤȹͤƤ褤Ȥꡤȯ򡤸̩ʲɽɽ碌ۤΤ뤳ȤϤǤʤޤ̩ʲɽ򤹤ˤԤˤä͡Ω줬ΤϸθξƱǤ뤷ĴŪ¦̵̤뤷ƤƤͭյ˲Ѳ򵭽ҤǤʤȤŪʻ𤬤롥㤨С[i] 첻Ǥ뤳Ȥʤ¤ i-mutation ˤä [o] [e] Ѳ뤳ȤϤޤǤʤ̩˹¤ŪΩǤϡ[i] 첻ǤȤĴŪʼĥ򤹤뤳ȤǤʤΤǤ롥
ΤˤǤʤβ򰷤顤ޤѲͭյɬפ뤫顤˸ؤǤϤȤŪȯɽѤ뤳Ȥ򤱤ʤѸˤʬʤܥ֥ˤ˽ФƤȯɽϡʲɽǤʲɽǤʤ§ȤŪ "poorly resolved broad transcription" (Lass and Laing 20) ȹͤƤ褤
ߺǤ⹭ѤƤȯɽǤ IPA ݲɸʸפ The International Phonetic Association ΥȤ IPA: Alphabet 򻲾ȡ

Jakobson, R. and Halle, M. Fundamentals of Language. The Hague: Mouton, 1965.
Lass, Roger and Margaret Laing. "Interpreting Middle English." Chapter 2 of "A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English: Introduction.'' Available online at http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/ihd/laeme1/pdf/Introchap2.pdf .

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2011-02-24 Thu

#668. Chaucer knight Ȥεӱ [chaucer][bnc][collocation][kyng_alisaunder]

Chaucer 桤knight Ȥ90ʾ塤ӱս˸Ƥ롥бӱĴ١˥ɥǽ񤫤줿2ĤΥޥ Kyng Alisaunder Arthur and Merlin ǤƱͤĴ٤Ƥߤȡˤ⤷¤⤫Ӿ夬롥
Chaucer knight ȵӱƧȤ5ʾ帽Τˡmight (32), wight (22), night (9), right (8), bright (5) 롥Kyng Alisaunder ǤϹ٤ΤΤˤ wiȝth, fiȝth, riȝth / miȝth ꡤƱ Arthur and Merlin Ǥ ''fiȝt, riȝt, riȝth 롥ӱʬۤޤȤ᤿ΤʲοޤǤBurnley, p. 130 οޤȤ˺ˡ

Chaucer's Rhymes with

Chaucer εӱϡ٤ΤΤ濴ȤȾ¾2ĤΥޥ󥹺ʤȽʣƤꡤΤȤѸޥ󥹤ŪʵӱѤǤȲǤ롥ǡChaucer ΤߤѤƤӱ⤤Ĥǧ졤ͤεӱι롥
ӤˤäƤʤ˶̣¤롥¾Υޥ2ʡҤƤѸޥΤȤơǤ٤⤤ӱȤߤʤƤ褤Ȼפ fight Chaucer ˤϰ٤⸽ʤΤǤ롥knight fight ϱǤꡤcollocation ٹ礤⤤ȤϼǤ뤫顤Chaucer ˤԺߤԼȤפ롥Burnley (131) ϡӱȤƤ fight ԺߤϡChaucer 򤷤ȤδϢ⤢뤫⤷ʤ餯 Chaucer "a hackneyed rhyme" ֻȤŤ줿ӱפȤߤʤưռŪ򤱤Ȥ

Although he [Chaucer] was often content to employ familiar and traditional rhymes, there is also evidence of resourcefulness in seeking unusual rhymes, as well as of avoiding rhymes which might have proved unacceptable to his audience. (Burnley 131)


ͤѤӱǤϤʤѤʤäӱŦ뤳ȤǡλͤħθФ٤⤭Ħˤʤꤦ빥Ǥ롥ԺߤʤΤѤʤäΤΤˤϡ¾ӤʤФʤʤоݤܼΤˤϡ줬֤ƤĶ򹭤Ϥɬפ롥ʸؤο򸫤褦ʰŪǤ롥
ʤߤˡknight fight collocation ϶ä˰㤤ʤȽҤ٤ǤäǤ롥Ѹˤξ collocation BNCweb Ĵ٤ȤۤɸǤϤʤ̾ knight 5 fight ٤ϥѥ10󤭤Ǥ롥[2010-03-23-1]εǿ줿 MI T-score ͤ򸫤ȡ줾 3.5415, 2.8907 Ǥꡤcollocation ǧƤ褤ǤϤ롥

Burnley, David. The Language of Chaucer. Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1983. 13--15.

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2011-02-23 Wed

#667. COCA 50ʻ̤γϡ [lexicology][corpus][french][loan_word][adjective][statistics][coca]

ε[2011-02-22-1]˰³COCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ) ˴Ťñ٥ꥹȤѤѥåȡǥϡǺǶˤʤäɲä줿50ΥꥹȤѤơƱͤʻ̳Ĵ٤ΥꥹȤϸФ ( lemma ) ˴Ť5000졤ΥꥹȤϸ ( word form ) ˴Ť50Τˤ497187ˤǡʤۤʤ뤳Ȥդ
ȤۤƱȤ2줺ĤdzڤꡤL1L25ޤǤγΤ줾ˤ noun, verb, adj., adv., others 5ʬʻ̳ФʿͥǡϤΥڡHTML򻲾ȡ

Form-Based POS Ratios by COCA

L612٥դ꤫ʻΨϰȤäƤ褤L1734٥դ꤫ưϤޤΤˤʤ뤬礭Ƥߤȡʤʤ餷ƤߤȡľΥ٥뤫礭æƤʤ
[2011-02-16-1]ε衤ƻΨˤʤäƤ뤬ΥǡΤ׻ȡ0.1738ȤͤϤ줿 lemma ĴǤ0.1678ä顤ͤ˶Ƥ롥̾ư lemma word form Ψϡ̾줬 0.5086 : 0.6985ư줬 0.2000 : 0.1065 礭ۤʤΤǡƻ 0.1678 : 0.1738 Ȥ϶⤷ʤlemma word form ʻ̳ˤϰۤʤ뷹Τ⤷ʤǤ絬ϤĴ٤ȰȸƤӤ֤и뤳ȤϳΤʤ褦
[2011-02-16-1]εǿ줿褦ˡѸΥե󥹼ѸˤƻΨ0.1768ä0.1738ȹƤ뤬ޤǰ㤦Τǡľܤδط뤳Ȥ̵Ǥ롥ȤȺĴϡ[2011-02-16-1]ĴȤ̵ط˻Ϥ᤿ΤǤ롥Ȼפ뤳η̤ϡŪǤϤ롥ѸäȤ̾줬ŪʤϤͽۤƤΤΡե󥹸ťΥɸ줫Ϥ褽γηƻʤ줾 lemma Ĵ0.17680.1817ˤѤƤơΨϻ夬ۤʤȤϤѸΨȶƤ롥ѸΤˤΨȼѸäˤΨƤȤȤϡ⤷ǤʤȤ顤̣Τե󥹼ѸäťΥɼѸäѸŬ褦ʼΨDZѸäϤȤȤϡΥѥåȡǥη̤Ƥΰݤ˴Ť speculation ˤʤʻ̳ȤܤƤ

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2011-02-22 Tue

#666. COCA 5000ʻ̤γϡ [lexicology][corpus][statistics][n-gram][coca]

COCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ) ˴ŤƼåꥹȤ Corpus-based word frequency lists, collocates, and n-grams Ǥ롥ΤʤǺǤŪʥꥹȤκ5000ꥹǤ롥󤵤ƤΤϸФ ( lemma ) ñ̤ǡ̤ϥѥ˸٤ʬδؿǷ׻Ƥ롥UCREL CLAWS7 Tagset ʻ쥳ɽ˴ŤƤʻͿƤꡤʻ̤٤ʤɤڤʬϤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ϡ500줴Ȥ˶ڤä٤ι⤤L1L10ޤǤγߤ줾γˤʻ̳Фʻϳ ( open class ) 濴Ȥnoun, verb, adj., adv., others 5ʬȤʿͥǡϤΥڡHTML򻲾ȡ

Lemma-Based POS Ratios by COCA

1ɤγǤ̾줬ȾƤΤͽۤǤȤ2ʹߤ̾γ礬פäۤɿӤƤʤȤʬäưȷƻ줬ȾγǤ⤪褽γ³ƤΤͽ۳äΤȤơ5000ꥹȤ˸¤С̾줬ȴĤĤ⡤ΨϤ褽ݤƤȤ褦͡ưƻƤߤ褽Τ500ʹߤȸƤ褵
[2011-02-16-1]εѸΥե󥹼Ѹʻ̳ߤΤȤƤηƻΨ0.1768äθѸκ5000ǤϡΤȤƤηƻΨ0.1678٤ựΤͤɤʬʤѸʸ졩ˤˤʻΨΡְ괶פΤ褦ʤΤϤΤ
COCA ˴Ťΰʳ˥饤ǤѱñꥹȤˤĤƤ[2010-03-01-1]ε򻲾ȡɽѤ̤ΥѥåȡǥȤƤϡñβ򰷤ä[2010-04-17-1]ε򻲾ȡ

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2011-02-21 Mon

#665. Chaucer ˤߤ3;̾εؼŪˡ [chaucer][personal_pronoun][demonstrative][french]

ѸǤ3;̾̾Ԥơ̾˰λؼŪǽ⤿üˡ롥Chaucer "The Knight's Tale", ll. 1209--10 㤬 Burnley (22--25) ƤΤǰѤ褦ʰʲѤ The Riverside Chaucer ˡ

This was the forward, pleynly for t'endite,
Bitwixen Theseus and hym Arcite:


ͩĤƤ Arcite ĤDz˸ڤƤսǡη Theseus hym Arcite δ֤Ǹ蘆줿Ǥ뤳ȤƤ롥ѤƤ hym εؼŪˡ3;̾Ǥ롥hym Arcite Ȥ̾ԤƤΤϡ1ĤˤϱΧԹȤȤͤ뤬Ǥϡ֤Υ륷ҤΥ륷פۤɤΰ̣ǡhym ϻؼоݤꤷƤȲ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥Horobin (95) Ǥϡؼ that ۤɤ֤ hym ȤƤ롥
;̾ˤϼȤȱ ( anaphora ) εǽ롥ȱʹ˵ڤܤ̤ȤƤϡ(1) ȱоݤ¸ߤǧΤ(2) 줬ïǤ뤫ͤߤᤵ롤Ȥ2Ĥʳͤ롥嵭 hym Arcite ǡhym (1) ΤߤôäƤꡤȱоݤȤ Arcite ľƤ뤿ˡ(2) ޤǤôɬפʤ;̾Ǥʤ餽εǽȾʬ̤ƤʤؼŪȸƤФʤ
ΧԹ̤Ȥơʸ̮ȤƤ hym פʤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤΤ Arcite ǤξDzϤʤArcite ȤƼƤΤʻؼоݤ hym Ǥ˸ꤷȤΤ̯ʤΤǤ롥ǤϡַפǤȤפǤ롥
ַפδؤˡΧŪʸˤƤϡˤʤäƤΤïʤΤʤΤ򤳤Ȥɬפ롥ΤˡˡΧʸǤϸͭ̾ˤؼŪǤ;ŪԤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤ롥Burnley (24) 󤲤ƤˡΧʸ񤫤ȤƤϡPetition of the Folk of Mercerye (1386) he Nichol, hym Nichol, the forsaid Nichol (PDE (the) aforesaid), the same Nichol ʤɤ֤Ȥޤˡ֤Υ˥롤ҤΥ˥פǤ롥
󥰥ɤˡΧˡ¿ե󥹸äƤ ( see [2010-03-29-1], [2010-07-04-1] ), θˡե󥹸αƶ¿ʬ˼Ƥꤵ롥3;̾򵿻ؼȤѤ hym Arcite Τ褦ʡֿ;ܸ̾ͭ̾פȤ˴бϥե󥹸ˤϤʤǽŪˤۤб dit, le ditz, avaunt ditz, lequel ʤɤƶڤܤȹͤ롥ƥˡΧʸǤ⡤ե󥹸ˡб dictus, supradictus, ipse, idem ʤɤ롥

Burnley, David. The Language of Chaucer. Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1983.
Horobin, Simon. Chaucer's Language. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-04-10-1]

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2011-02-20 Sun

#664. littera, figura, potestas [spelling_pronunciation_gap][grammatology][graphemics]

ε[2011-02-19-1]ȴϢơѸֻȯδطˤĤơLAEME ԽԤȤμդǤϡ4Υޤʸˡ Aelius Donatus ˤѸ littera, figura, potestas Ūʰ̣դ줿νѸȤƤФѤƤLass and Laing, p. 9 ˰ѤƤ븶ʸӱǤ褦

Littera est pars minima vocis articulatae ... littera est vox, quae scribi potest individua ... accidunt cuique littera tria, nomen figura potestas, quaeritur enim, quid vocatur littera, qua figura sit, qua possit.

Littera is the smallest unit of articulated sound ... littera is (a) sound which is capable of being written alone ... littera has three properties: name, shape, power [= sound value]. For one must ask what the littera is called, what its shape is, and what its power is.


littera ( grapheme ) figura ϻʡŪʸθˡpotestas ϲˤ줾ȹͤʽǤˤĤƤ[2010-12-02-1]ε򻲾ȡˡ㤨С`e' Ȥ littera <e> Ȥ figura Ȥƽ񤫤졤 potestas [e] Ǥפʤɤɽ뤳ȤǤ롥
ơѸǤ littera potestas бŪ11ǤʤäϸѸǤƱʤΤǶäˤʤѸǤ11ɤ¿¿б֤Ǥꡤܥ֥Ǥ spelling_pronunciation_gap γƵǼ夲ƤǤ롥嵭Ѹγǰ Litteral Substitution Set (LSS) Potestatic Substitution Set (PSS) ȸƤФ뵭ˡѤȡ˼褦˸ѸֻˤڤǤ褦ˤʤ롥
[2010-11-13-1]εǿ줿 [ɪ] бֻפ夲褦him, hymn, English, busy, spinach, been, sieve, build Ȥäˤꡤ[ɪ] LSS ϰʲΤ褦ˤʤ¾ˤ⤢뤫⤷ʤˡ

LSS of [ɪ]: { `i', `y', `e', `u', `a', `ee', `ie', `ui' }


դǡ`a' бȯפƤߤȡapple, age, sofa, image, mirage, any ʤɤθ㤫顤`a' PSS ϰʲΤ褦ˤʤ¾ˤ⤢뤫⤷ʤˡ

PSS of `a': { [æ], [eɪ], [ə], [ɪ], [ɑː], [ɛ] }


˼ LSS PSS ɸ฽Ѹˤ뵬ŪֻRPʤɤν൬ŪȯȤбˤʤȤդƼŪɸѼθаۤʤä LSS PSS ޤƤѸä˽ˤ̤СϤԺߤǤ뤫ƥ ( scribal text ) Ȥ˸̤νηϤȹͤʤФʤʤѸνηϤʾʣǤꡤ餳 Lass and Laing ƤƤ褦פɬפΤ

Lass, Roger and Margaret Laing. "Interpreting Middle English." Chapter 2 of "A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English: Introduction.'' Available online at http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/ihd/laeme1/pdf/Introchap2.pdf .

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2011-02-19 Sat

#663. Ѹؤˤֻȯδط [lalme][laeme][me_dialect][spelling_pronunciation_gap][grammatology][graphemics][x]

ѸϿ LAEME εǽ夷ƤڤǤ⤢ߤοƤǤ⤢ѸϿ LALME ϡֻȯδطͻǽפθ⤿餷ƤѸˤֻŪʬۤȯŪʬۤƱͤŪʲͤäƤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤޤǤϡֻȯ˽°ŪηϤǤꡤֻŪʬܼۤŪ˽פʲͤäƤȤϤߤʤƤʤäLALME ֻΩƴѻ٤ηϤȤư֤ŤΤǤ롥ֻȯȤǤ
Ѹؤϡ1986ǯ LALME оˤäưɽͤʤ顤ʳ뤳Ȥˤʤä˰βʤ̳äȤϳΤǤ롥ʸǤĤƤʤѸθŪ֡Ȥȯμ֤ɤ餻ȻפСֻ˹Ԥ夤ƤޤֻɤΤ餤¤ȯɽ路ƤΤϡޤ˳ַڤǤ롥㤨С̾⤤Τ˸Ѹ shall бѸ East Anglia ֻ xul, xal ʤθ¾δֻ̯ MED 򻲾ȡˡ <x> ʸɽ蘆벻 [ks] ʤΤ [ʃ] ʤΤ뤤̤βʤΤΤ褦䤬ΩϤʤǡֻȯڤΥƹͤƤߤ褦ֻ¦ǤΩƹͻƤߤ褦Ȥ褬Ϳ뤳ȤȤʤä
ȯμβϱʵפ³櫓ǤϤʤLALME νǸ塤ʻȤƤϤŤˤ³ԤȤ LAEME ΥץȤϤޤäץȤθȾܳŪ˻ä˷ֲ Lass ϡֻȯδطƹͤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

The statement in LALME (vol. 1, 6) that the maps constitute 'a dialect atlas of written Middle English', and that texts are 'treated as examples of a system of written language in its own right' is often misinterpreted. The emphasis on the independent value of written evidence was particularly apposite two decades ago, given the post-Bloomfieldian view that was current then (and to a large extent still is) that writing is of no independent linguistic interest, but merely 'parasitic on' speech. But this must not be misunderstood and taken to imply that phonological interpretation is per se unnecessary. The LALME editors take no such line. They were fully aware of the potential phonological implications of their data. LALME is rich in phonological commentary, while the series of Dot Maps (vol. 1) crucially depends on acknowledging the relationship between sound and symbol. (Lass and Laing 11--12)


ϡ20ǯۤɤβθ xul βϲȤ̴Τ褦Ω֤ʤФʤʤȤʸǤʤƤ Lass and Laing ʸιͻϡѸֻˤȤɤޤ餺ѸֻȯδطˤͿΤǤꡤɤ߱롥

Lass, Roger and Margaret Laing. "Interpreting Middle English." Chapter 2 of "A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English: Introduction." Available online at http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/ihd/laeme1/pdf/Introchap2.pdf .
McIntosh, Angus, M. L. Samuels, and M. Benskin. A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English. 4 vols. Aberdeen: Aberdeen UP, 1986.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-07-25-1] [2011-02-20-1]

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2011-02-18 Fri

#662. sp-, st-, sk- ̵ˤʤͳ [phonetics][consonant][grimms_law][sgcs][germanic][aspiration][phonotactics]

[2011-01-28-1]εǡѸǶΤ벻κǽˤ s+ ̵פλҲϢ© ( aspiration ) ȼʤȤ夲ħϸΥޥ˶̤Ƹ뤳Ȥ饲ޥĸˤΤܤħȹͤ졤ĸ줫ʬȤ Grimm's Law ( see [2009-08-08-1], grimms_law ) 䡤˹ϥޥȤ Second Germanic Consonant Shift ( see [2010-06-06-1] ) ʤɤλҲܤ˴ͿƤΤǤϤʤȤä
⤽⡤Ѹʤ¾Υޥˤˤ s Ԥ p, t, k ̵ȤʤΤʤʤΤˤĤ[2011-01-28-1]ŪäƱνβؼԤ˳ǧäƤߤȤ˾ɬפȤʤäΤǵƤǤϡֵ©ϡγ٤ƸƵϳȤݤ/s/ ϤȤȸƵϳȼäƤ뤿ˡľǸƵ򤤤äߤᡤ餿٤餻ϳ餹ȤȤˤפȤѸ /s/ ʵ©Ȥߤʤۤɶ˸ƵϳȼäƤȤΤΤʵҤǤϤʤä/s/ Τ aspirated ǤϤʤƱνŪϴˤǤʤäΤΡ s Ĵľθεξ֤³ aspiration ˺ѤפȤȤϵƤȤ
ǡɬŪǤϤʤȤ⤢Ȥs Ԥ줿̵©ȤȤĴ뤳ȤϷ褷ԲǽǤϤʤñ˸줴Ȥΰ۲ʬۤꡤ ( phonotactics ) ǤȤ⤢ȤŪɤΤ餤Ǥ뤫ȽǤˤϹ̸Ū˲ʬۤߤɬפΤ
λҲϢʤ̵ȤʤΤϤΤ褦̤Τޤޤˡ§ȤδϢǤϡ䤤˺ˤФɬפϤʤͳʬʤ⤷ʤޥĸ줬¾ΰɤʬ졤s ԤݻΤΡǤʤȼηηŪ˿ܤȤȤϴְ㤤ʤΤǤ롥

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2011-02-17 Thu

#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸 [anglo-norman][writing][bilingualism][reestablishment_of_english][diglossia]

Υޥˤꥤ󥰥ɤθѸ줬 Old English Norman French ڤؤä󥰥ǸԤ Anglo-French ȤȯãLatin ȤȤ˥󥰥ɤμפʽ񤭸դȤʤäΥޥ2ۤɡѸϽ񤭸դȤƳ̵Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤäۤȤɤűѸäʸμ̤ǤꡤѸ줬ʸȤɽ蘆Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤѸäդǤФ񤭸դȤƤѸ줬ܳŪ˸Ƥˤϡ12ȾԤʤФʤʤäޤǤϡ󥰥ɤ1ν񤭸դȤбѸǤϤʤAnglo-French Latin äΤǤ롥
ΥޥΥ󥰥ɤäդȤСѤ餺Ѹäե󥹿ͤǤ벦²䤽δطԤ夷Ф餯ϥե󥹸ȤݻƤȹͤ뤷󥰥ɿͤǤήܤ뵡Τ͡Ͼʤ餺ե󥹸2ȤƽƤ󥰥ɤ1äդȤбѸ˰㤤ʤä ( see [2010-11-25-1] )
Τ褦ˡΥޥ夷Ф餯δ֤ϡ󥰥ɤˤפäդȽ񤭸դȤϿäƤ12ˤơ󥰥ɿͤν񤭼ʤϱѸäƤʤ顤񤯤Ȥˤ Anglo-French ѤȤڤؤѤȤˤĤƤȤˤʤ롥դ˸С12ޤǤˤϡAnglo-French ν񤭼ǤäƤפäդϱѸä礭Lass and Laing (3) Ѥ롥

By the early Middle English period, four generations after the Conquest, the high prestige languages in the written/spoken diglossia (though distantly cognate) were 'foreign': normally second and third languages, formally taught and learned. By the late 12th century it is virtually certain --- except in the case of scribes from continuingly bilingual families (and we do not have the information that would allow us to identify them) --- that none of the English scribes writing French were native speakers of French (though some may of course have been coordinate bilinguals). It is certain that none were native speakers of Latin, since after the genesis of the Romance vernaculars in the early centuries of this era it is most unlikely that there were any.


Υ󥰥ɤξܤβͶξȤƤߤСʤܸäƤʤ顤񤯤ȤˤϴʸѤʤǤβäɬդǤϤʤ⤷ʤˤȤ褦ʾ
12󥰥ɤˤäդȽ񤭸դ diglossia 2ѼȤʬפ뤤 bilingualism ˤĤƤϡLass and Laing (p.3, fn. 3) ¿λʸ󤲤Ƥ롥

Lass, Roger and Margaret Laing. "Interpreting Middle English." Chapter 2 of "A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English: Introduction.'' Available online at http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/ihd/laeme1/pdf/Introchap2.pdf .

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2011-02-16 Wed

#660. ѸΥե󥹼ѸηƻΨ [french][loan_word][adjective][statistics]

ѥ (p. 113) ˼Τ褦ʵҤä

ѸǤϡƥ줪ӥե󥹸줫μѸήħŪǤ롥ե󥹸μѸϡˤߤ褦ˡƻʬˡȤʤ򤷤Ƥ롥
ablecovetousgraciouspertinentsimple
abundantcoyhardyplainsingle
activecruelhastypliantsober
actualcurioushonestpoorsolid
amiabledebonairhorriblepreciousspecial
amorousdoubleinnocentprincipalstable
barreneagerjollyprobablestout
blankeasylargeproperstrange
brieffaintliberalpuresturdy
calmfeebleluxuriousquaintsubtle
certainfiercemaliciousrealsudden
chastefinalmeanrudesupple
chieffirmmoistsafesure
clearforeignnaturalsagetender
commonfrailnicesavagetreacherous
contraryfrankobedientscarceuniversal
courageousgayoriginalsecondusual
courteousgentleperfectsecret 


ɤθ줫ǤäƤѸäϤȾ̾ǤȤߤǤΤǡαä˷ƻ줬ǤʤɤȼѸäʻ̤˸Ϸ礱ƤΤ˾Τ褦󤵤ȤΤ褦ˤפƤ롥
ˤ줫äѸΤ1ȤȤʻ̤ΨϤɤΤ餤δθ椬äɤˤϻפĤʤäΤǡOED ѤƼʬǷڤĴ٤Ƥߤ뤳ȤˤѸäե󥹼ѸäηƻΨɤΤ餤Ĵ٤ΤŪФ줿᤹ͤ뤿ˤϡ餫ӤɬפǤ롥ϡťΥɸбΨ٤뤳ȤˤOED Advance Search ǡ̾졤ƻ졤ưμ3ʻ줴Ȥ˸뤳Ȥˤ"language names" ˤ줾 "French" "ON" "earliest date" "1101-1500" ϤANDη̤[2011-01-05-1]εǾҲ𤷤OED θ̤äȤʬह CGIפήߡͤʻ줴Ȥθ2Υդξǥ뤬ۤʤäƤ뤳ȤաʿͥǡϤΥڡHTML򻲾ȡ

French and ON Loanwords by Part of Speech from C12 to C15: Table 1
French and ON Loanwords by Part of Speech from C12 to C15: Table 2

ͽۤȤϤۤʤ̤ФȾ2ǤߤȤˤϡƻΨ˴ؤƤϸťΥɸΤۤե󥹸äƤ롥Ⱦ2Ǥϥե󥹸ΤۤäƤ롥ξǼѸκۤʤäƤ뤳ȤȿǤ뤫Τ褦ˡե󥹸ǤϤ褽ĴҡťΥɸǤϤ褽ĴҤˤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ狼4פǤߤȥե󥹸0.1768ťΥɸ0.1817ǸԤϺǾäƤꡤΤȤƥե󥹸ηƻ줬֤Ȥʤ򤷤ƤפȤɤ߼ʤä
ϹӤѥåȡǥʤΤDzˤդפ롥OED θˤϵǽθ³ꡤ齦ФǡˤλäƤ롥ޤ[2011-02-09-1]εˤ褦ˡѸ줬ե󥹸줫ʤΤƥ줫ʤΤ̤Ĥˤ¿ƥѸоݤ˲äʤäΤƱͳǤ롥
ѥΡ֤ȤʤפȤϡʻ̡ä̾ΨΤȤؤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷ʤƥȾǤ٤⤤ȤܤˤĤȤ򤷤ƤȤΨȤ̤μǤθΤȤؤƤΤ⤷ʤ⡤ƻпǤХե󥹸ϸťΥɸ5ܰʾ⤢롥ݤȤƤϡChaucer ޥ󥹤ΥƥȤǤΥե󥹼ѸƻϳΤ˸ѥλŦˤϼΤǤ롥
夳ɵ椹ΤǤС٤ι⤤ĴɬפȤǼѸǧťΥɸǤʤƥ줫μѸäӤϰϤ˰ưɬפѸƥȤ򥸥̤˸ƤΤ⤪⤷

ɥ졦ѥ رѸˡ١ҡʸ˥ӡ1980ǯ

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2011-02-15 Tue

#659. Ѹ Romaunce ΰ̣ѲȥȤƤȯŸ [literature][romance][semantic_change]

[2010-11-06-1]ε romance Ȥθ츻 romance ȤʸإȯȤδط򸫤ȤƤ romance 12ȾΥե󥹤˻ϤޤꡤʸؤǤ13ˤʤäƤ褦䤯줿ե󥹤Ǥ⥤ꥹǤ romansromaunce ϡȤĹˤĤ졤¿ŪˤʤäƤäդˤиȯŸλ򸫤뤳ȤǡȤƤɤΤ褦ȯŸƤäʬȤȤǤ롥
ޤե󥹤ǤϤɤΤ褦ª줿[2010-11-06-1]εǸȤꡤromans ʸ̤ˤϡ֥ޥ󥹸פ򸶵ȤŪˤϥƥФ ( vernacular language ) ȤƤθťե󥹸 ( Old French ) ؤե󥹤ν񤭼ꤿϡStatius Thebaid, Virgil Aeneid, Benoît de Sainte-Maure ΥȥWace Υ֥ƥˤʤɡ˥ƥ줿ʪ ( romans d'antiquité ) 򡤥ƥ򤵤ʤ͡ˤǤ褦 romans Υե󥹸ˤǽľ顤romans ϡ֥ե󥹸ǽ񤫤줿ʪפ̣褦ˤʤäν romans ν񤭼ꤿϡ˥ȤƤΥޥ󥹤ȷӤĤħä˰տޤƤ櫓ǤϤʤäоʪο̯Ի׵ĤʽȤä˸Ƥ򼨤ƤΤϳΤǤ롥romans θħäʪμؤ褦ˤʤΤ12νꡤޥ󥹤ΥΤڤ곫 Chrétien de Troyes դ꤫ȹͤ롥ˡȻδ⡤Τ chançon ǤϤʤʪȤơ𷮻 laisse ǤϤʤ8 ( octosyllabic ) Ȥơromans ȼӤӤƤ褦ˤʤ롥ơե󥹸 romans ϡ֥ե󥹸ס֥ե󥹸ǽ񤫤줿ʪסŪˤħäʪסַŪˤħäʪפؤỌ̇̄ȯŸʸإɽ魯̸ƾΤȤƽ夷Ƥä
̣ѲѸȡָפ֤θǽ񤫤줿Ρפؤδ ( metonymy ) ȡ֤θǽ񤫤줿ΡפŪˤħäʪפؤΰ̣ü첽 ( specialisation ) Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ˡꥹˤ romaunce θȯŸϤɤäե󥹤 romans ʤϡAnglo-Norman ȤΤ̤᤯饤ꥹˤ⤿餵ƤѸȤΤ˾褻Τ13⽪꺢ΤȤǤ롥ۤܤ٤Ƥե󥹸줫ǤäΤǡѸ romaunce ϡ֥ե󥹸ǽ񤫤줿ʪפ򹭤ؤ̣Ȥƽȯ֤򤪤ˡθǤϤʤܤ뿷ʸθ줬ѸǤäƤ⡤ʪ˾ƤʪϹ romaunce ȸƤФ褦ˤʤäʪοݤˡФиŪʵӿ俧ղä줿ⶵʸؤϤ夲 romaunce ¯ŪʤΤȤ񤷤̣Ȥˡⶵʸؤ romaunce Ωδ romaunce ȤʸؤħŤ뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤ롥ʤƸˤˤޥʸؤ¯Ūʿ͵ͤȡʤȤǤ롥ơѸ romaunce ϡ֥ե󥹸ǽ񤫤줿ʪס֤ʪ˾ƤʪסŪˤħäʪפؤȸȯŸƤäǤ⡤̣ü첽 ( specialisation ) Ƥ롥

Strohm, Paul. "The Origin and Meaning of Middle English Romaunce." Genre 10.1 (1977): 1--28.

Referrer (Inside): [2011-06-16-1]

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2011-02-14 Mon

#658. William Jones θ² [indo-european][family_tree][comparative_linguistics][history_of_linguistics][hebrew][jones]

[2010-02-03-1]εǡSir William Jones (1746--1794) ˤäưӸؤü郎줿Ȥ򸫤ߤǤȤƤ֤ηŪطˤĸ ( proto-language ) ² ( language family ) ʤɤȤǰϡJones ˤϤޤǤܤʤΤǤʤäοƸ ( parent language ) ۤɤγǰǤС¤줿ϰϤ뤳ȤꤢäʲPerret (14--15) 򻲾ȤƸ²Ѥ˴ؤˤվ񤭤dzѤ롥

10䥢֤ʸˡȤإ֥饤ȥӥŦ˥߸²ǧΤ¸ߤͽۤ
13Roger Bacon (1220?--92) 奮ꥷȸ奮ꥷηطGiraud de Cambrie Ƚηط򡤻Ŧ
14κǽ顤 (1265--1321) ޥ󥹽Υƥ쵯˵դ
1617ˡȼ H. Estienne Ի Ménage ʤɤ줾ե󥹸Υƥ쵯ξڤ
16꤫顤õȤɤν졤ꥷ졤ƥ졤˥ڥ륷졤ޥȤδطˤĤƸڤϤ᤿

ܳŪʸ²õϤϡϤǤõ俢̱ǰפϤ줿18ˤʤäƤ褦䤯ۤ줿ȤäƤ褤Τ褦ˤήơ18θȾ󥹥åȸ򸦵椷 Jones ˤŪʹֱ餬Ԥʤ줿ΤǤ롥

Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-01-16-1] [2012-10-20-1]

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2011-02-13 Sun

#657. "English is the least typical Indo-European language." [germanic][indo-european][drift]

ε[2011-02-12-1]Ǥ夲ޥɤΰŪħ⤷ Meillet ϡѸ줬²ΤʤǤðۤѲ뤲Ǥ뤫⤷Ƥ롥ޥˤϰĸθΰæˤǤꡤΤʤǤѸä˰æ٤㤷ȤФ餯 Meillet Caracteres ɤǤǸ1ڡ˾嵭ΥޥѡѸѤŽ̤Ƥ롥"CONCLUSION GÉNÉRALE" ĤǰѤ褦

Le germanique commun, fait à peu près tout entier d'éléments indo-européens, et dont l'aspect est à beaucoup d'égards encore tout indo-européen, était déjà en réalité un système nouveau. En développant les innovations qu'il présentait, les dialectes en lesquels il s'est différencié ont abouti à des états de choses qui s'éloignent de plus en plus de l'indo-européen. Le groupe de tous le plus conservateur, le groupe allemand, a pourtant une grammaire tout autre que la grammaire indo-européenne et un vocabulaire pénétré de mots étrangers, de valeurs étrangères de mots. Et, là où les circonstances historiques ont hâté le développement, presque rien n'est resté du type indo-européen de la langue : en anglais, la prononciation est éminemment singulière, la grammaire est d'un type qui est le plus loin possible du type indo-européen, et le vocabulaire ne laisse presque plus apparaître que bien peu de termes anciens avec leur sens ancien. A l'indo-européen, l'anglais est lié par une continuité historique; mais il n'a presque rien gardé du fonds indo-européen. (Meillet 221)

ޥĸϡۤȤɤ٤ưǤʤäƤꡤħ¿Ǥޤ˰ŪǤäºݾϤǤ˿ηϤǤäޥĸ줫ʬϡĸ줬Ƥ׿ȯŸʤ顤ޤޤĸ줫ЪΥ줿֤ãΤʤǺǤݼŪʸ췲Ǥɥĸ췲Ǥ顤ĸʸˡȤϤޤäۤʤʸˡäƤꡤñȳθ줿ääƤ롥ơŪʾˤꤽȯŸ¥ʤ줿Ǥϡ쥿פħϤۤȤɻĤƤʤΤǤ롥˱ѸǤϡȯäǤꡤʸˡϰ쥿פǽʸ¤꤫ΥƤꡤäϸṬ̌äŤۤζϤФɽ魯ˤʤѸŪ³ˤäƳΤ˰ĸ˷դƤ롥ѸϰĸܼۤȤɲݤäƤʤΤǤ롥


Meillet, A. Caracteres generaux des langues germaniques. 2nd ed. Paris: Hachette, 1922.

Referrer (Inside): [2011-03-16-1] [2011-03-13-1]

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2011-02-12 Sat

#656. "English is the most drifty Indo-European language." [germanic][indo-european][drift][inflection][synthesis_to_analysis]

ѸʸˡˤˤơޤοβϺǤ礭ȸäƤ褤⤷ʤűѸѸˤޤοˤꡤѸŪʸ ( synthetic language ) ʬŪʸ ( analytic language ) ؤ礭ɤڤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
ѸʳΥޥǤ٤κϤƱϸ졤ϤФ drift ɺήήפȸƤФ롥䡤¤ drift ϰΤ˹ѻ礭ĬήǤꡤޥ˸ꤵ٤ǤϤʤȤϤޥǤȤ櫓 drift ѻ뤳Ȥϻ¤Ǥ롥ơΥޥΤʤǤ⡤Ѹ줬Ǥ⸲ drift θ̤ΤǤ롥
Ѹ줬 "the most drifty Indo-European language" Ǥ뤳Ȥ򼨤ˤϡϸ¸Τ줾ˤĤƤɤ drift ʹԤƤΤĴȤȤɬפ⤤ʤΤǺϸҤ礤˽ФƺѤޤƤ

La tendance à remplacer la flexion par l'ordre des mots et par des mots accessoires est chose universelle en indo-européen. Nulle part elle ne se manifeste plus fortement que dans les langues germaniques, bien que le germanique conserve encore un aspect alchaique. Nulle part elle n'a abouti plus complètement qu'elle n'a fait en anglais. L'anglais représente le terme extrême d'un développement: il offre un type linguistique différent du type indo-européen commun et n'a presque rien gardé de la morphologie indo-européenne. (Meillet 191--92)

ޤտ֤뷹ϡǤŪʤȤǤ롥ޥĸϤޤ˸ħݻƤȤϤޥʾ˷㤷ηθϤʤѸʾ˴ˤηϤʤΤѸϤȯãεˤν򼨤Ƥ롥ѸϰĸηȤϰۤʤäη󼨤ƤΤǤꡤŪʷۤȤݤäƤʤΤ


տפ des mots accessoires ϡMeillet ˤСűѸ ge- ʤɤưƬ̲ -sk Τ褦ʺƵ̾ŪưˤĤؼ줫ȯãȤäؤ
Ȱ鷺ѸϰȤΰüǤ뤳ȤϳΤʤ褦Ǥ롥äȤ⡤ԥѸ ( see [2010-08-03-1] ) ʤɤޤСѸ⤵ɺήŪʸϤ

Meillet, A. Caracteres generaux des langues germaniques. 2nd ed. Paris: Hachette, 1922.

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2011-02-11 Fri

#655. ޤο캬ξ [conversion][drift][germanic][inflection]

ѸθħȤʻž ( conversion ) ǤȤȤ롥ʻžˤĤƤ[2009-11-03-1], [2009-11-01-1]εʤɤǽҤ٤줬Ū˲ǽȤʤäΤϡűѸ줫ѸˤƵäοʿȤ³ü椨Ǥ롥űѸǤϡ̾ưϼ̣Ūʵǽ˱ƶ̤ζ޸Ȥä޸βפʤˤĤ졤ζ̤Ĥʤʤä޸οϡ٤κϤ졤1˥Ȥ򤪤ħĥޥ˶̤θݤǤ ( see [2009-10-26-1] (4) )
Ѹˤʻžȯϡ嵭Τ褦˥ޥ˶̤޸οࡤɺή ( drift ) αĹˤȤ뤳Ȥ¿ϲŪȤ⤦1ĤȤƤϡ[2010-01-16-1]εǿ줿褦ˡ絬§γΩȴϢŤΤ롥Ѹʹߡ礬褽ޤäȤˤꡤ㤨ư̾ζ̤Ϸ֤ˤ餺ȤˤäƤĤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤäΤȤʻžȯ˹Ū˺ѤȤ롥ϡŪȤ롥
ޤŦ줿ȤϤʤ褦˻פ뤬⤦1ġ̣Ū롥νȯϡƤӥޥ˶̤Ҥ drift Ǥ롥ޥˤ drift ν϶ޤοˤȲᤵ뤳Ȥ¿΢֤ȤƱ餤פʤΤϡỤ̄ô캬˾Ƥ뤳ȤˤʤäȤǤ롥ˤäơ㤨 love ϡʸǤŪϲϲǤ뤫ʤɤβѤξɸô졤ְפȤỤ̄ɸ뤳Ȥ˽椹뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤälove Ȥ֤ϡְפȤŪɽ魯Τò֤Ǥꡤ줬ʸ̾ȤơְפȤѤΤưȤơְפȤѤƤΤϡŪǤʤʻ줫줬ꤷƤ롥ޤοȤŪʲˤϡ캬ξȤ̣Ūʴߤտ路ƤȤȤܤͤ

Le développement grammatical du germanique est donc commandé par deux grands faits: l'intensité initiale a donné aux radicaux une importance nouvelle, la dégradation des finales a tendu à ruiner la flexion, et l'a en effet ruinée dans des langues comme l'anglais et le danois. (Meillet 100)

äơޥʸˡȯã2Ĥνפʻ¤˻ۤƤ롥1ĤϸƬζ캬˿ʽͿȤȤǤꡤ⤦1ĤϸοबޤǤꡤºݤ˱ѸǥޡʤɤθǤƤޤäȤȤǤ롥


Meillet, A. Caracteres generaux des langues germaniques. 2nd ed. Paris: Hachette, 1922.

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2011-02-10 Thu

#654. 衼åѤΥ饤Х뼭٤ OED ħ [oed][lexicography][ghost_word]

[2011-01-31-1]εǻȤ Osselton ʸ pp. 72--75 顤Ū§§ä衼åѤΥ饤Х뼭3 ( DWB, Littré, WNT ) Ӥ OED ħˤĤƲվ񤭤롥

(1) Ѹ ( loanwords ), ׻ ( nonce-words ), ͩ ( ghost words ) ʤɤӤƴƤ˺ѤƤ롥DWB WNT ϡˤϼѸˤĤԴƤä
(2) Ʊ ( synonyms ) Ѥ䡤collocation pattern ؤθڤ¾μ٤Ƽ夤
(3) ¿θϡȻ路Х󥹤μ줿֤ȤʤäƤ롥
(4) ˡˤĤƤΥȤϺǤ⵭ŪǤ롥¾μϤ⵬ŪŪǤ롥
(5) OED ԻĹäˤ⤫餺û֤ǤۤϤǺȤ Littré ٤ۤɤˡե٥åΤˤ錄äƵҤӤƤ롥
(6) 1150ǯѸȤʤääűѸ줫鸽ѸޤǤˤ錄ĹλäȰƤ롥DWB 1550ǯۤɤ Luther 19Ⱦ Goethe ޤǡ19ΰϼ夤ˡLittré 1600ǯ顤WNT 1500ǯ1637ǯζ񤫤ˤǤ롥
(7) ֻŪ۷ӤưƤ롥㤨Сneighbour 429ֻ̤βǽ뤳Ȥ롥
(8) 㤬ʷǤꡤǯ夬Ƥ롥DWB WNT ϡؤǯͿϸδΤߤǤ롥

嵭¿ OED ħȤĹȤ٤⤷ʤOsselton ʸˤ OED λʬ¾μĹ󤲤ӤʤԸʿ嵭 OED ¿ħϸ˸ˤȤäƳΤɬԲķǤǤ롥ä (1), (4), (6), (7), (8) ʤɤϡ¾θ˲ȤˤȤäƹ꤬ФۤߤħǤϤʤ

Osselton, Noel. "Murray and his European Counterparts." Lexicography and the OED : Pioneers in the Untrodden Forest. Ed. Lynda Mugglestone. Oxford: OUP, 2000. 59--76.

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2011-02-09 Wed

#653. Ѹˤե󥹼ѸȥƥѸζ [etymological_respelling][history_of_french][french][latin][loan_word][etymology]

ѸΥե󥹸ѤˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ[2009-08-22-1]εϤȤ͡ʷǿƤƱѸΥƥѤˤĤƤ[2009-08-25-1]εǰäˡѸäξ줫μѸΨ⤤Ȥϡ[2010-06-30-1], [2009-11-14-1], [2009-08-15-1]ˤե󥹸ȥƥμѤϱѸˤǤϤ褯ꤢȥԥåǤꡤѸοˤʤˡ֥ե󥹡ƥѸפȤƹ碌ƿ뤳Ȥ¿Τ˥ե󥹸ȥƥϥޥ󥹸췲ΤʤǿƻҴطˤɤǤϤ뤬̡θȤƶ̤ĤϤǤ롥ˤ⤫餺碌ư뤳Ȥ¿ΤϤʤ
1ĤˤϡͽۤȤꡤѸǤϡե󥹸Ϥޤƥ줫̤ƵפʤäȤȤ롥Τ˼βѲˤäƥե󥹸ϥƥ줫̤褦ˤʤäƤξη֤Ϥޤ˻̤äƤ뤳Ȥ¿äˡ󥰥ɤƱͤˡե󥹤Ǥϥե󥹸¤ǥƥ񤭸դȤѤƤΤǡξη֤ʤޤƤʬκѤˤäΤǤ롥ѸǤѸѸˤƥƥ츻ֻ֤ ( see etymological_respelling ) Ʊե󥹤Ǥ᤯13Ⱦ鸽Ƥ¸Υե󥹸ƥ˶ŤؾѲΤǤ롥οϡΥե󥹸Ǥʤ̩ʥƥǤʤȾüʸȤʤꡤ줫ʬहΤϺǤꡤ̵̣Ǥ⤢ȤȤˤʤʥХpp. 72--73ˡ
ۡॺȥå (pp. 78--80) 򻲹ͤˡե󥹸ȥƥκѤξ򳵴ѤƤ륤ȸƤФ줿륤9 (Louis IX; 1214--70) ϡ1260ǯˡΧٲפ˾ФƤפμϾڸʸФ뤳ȤĤˤˤꡤˤͤȤƤοŪˡΧȤƬƤ뤳ȤˤʤäˡΧȤϤ줾񵭤ۤäƤꡤν񵭤 basoche ȸƤФȿե󥹸ֻ礭ʱƶڤܤĤȤʤäʾϥե󥹸ǽ񤫤줿ˡϤ󤶤ʥƥǽ񤫤Ƥꡤˡ⳦2DzäƤξϡե󥽥1 (Francis I; 1494--1547) ˡǤΥƥѤ졦ȥ ( Villers-Cotterêts ) ѻߤ1539ǯޤ³Τ褦ʻطʤǡ񵭤ϤʤˤΥƥζܤȤˤĤƤɬפä櫓ζܤȤ礷ΤǤϤʤե󥹸ȥƥֻѤΤäե󥹸 dit ־ҤΡΡפƥ dict ֤줿ꡤdoit ֻءפƥ digitus αƶ doigt ֤줿ꤷ
ǡ14ˤϥ5 (1338--80) γطݾˤƥ줬Ť󤸤줿ºݡ14--15ˤ錄ե󥹸μѸȾʾ夬ƥ줫ΤΤȤ롥˲äơ¸Υե󥹸ñƥη˶Ť etymological respelling ⾯ʤ餺ädelitier delecter ʤɤȤǤ ( see [2010-02-04-1] )
ʾ夬Ѹ̤˱Ѹή Latin, Latinised French, and French loanwords ̡˰ΤǤϤʤ֥ե󥹡ƥѸפȤư勞˰ΤǤͳƥ˴Ť etymological respelling ϱѸǤʤե󥹸ǤⵯäƤȡԤǤϥƥȤʤޤƤ뤬椨θκѤ礤ǤȤդɬפ롥

ݡ롦Х ס رѸθá١ҡʸ˥ӡ1976ǯ
U. T. ۡॺA. H. å إե󥹸ˡ١罤ۡ1974ǯ

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2011-02-08 Tue

#652. [caucasian][language_family][map]

[2011-02-05-1], [2011-02-06-1]εǥ˥ ( Armenian ) ȡΥˡ§ؤδߤˤ˥˴ظȤƱƶͿȿ¬ ( the Southern Caucasian languages ) ϡ깭Ϥʥ ( the Caucasian languages ) 1Ǥ롥ϡϤʬۤ륤ɥ衼åѸ²θ륯ɤθ줫̤äʸħ40ۤɤθ췲ǡ19Ϥ붵դ̱²ؼԤεϿˤΤ褦ˤʤäư衤ؼԤܤƤ
ȤϽŪʸƾΤǤꡤߤ˷ŪʴطˤȤϸ¤ʤפʸ²ȤƤϡ²ȥ² ( Kartvelian )̥²롼פΥ֥ϥǥ² ( Abkhazo-Adyghian ) 쥰롼פΥʥա² ( Nakho-Dagestanian ) 3Ĥ롥ʲϡCaucasian languages -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia ΥʬϿޤǤ롥

Distribution of Caucasian Languages by Britannica


嵭3²δطˤĤƤϤ褯ʬäƤʤȤ¿̥²θɤϸߤ˴ˤط򼨤Ȥḁ̇̄°²ϸߤΩƤȤΤߤͭϤʸǤ롥ؿʸ޴ա (p. 51) δطޤȤ᤿ΤޤǤ롥

Family Tree of the Caucasian Languages


ʤߤˡʲηޤ˼ʥǥ͡ ( the Dene-Caucasian hypothesis ) ˤȡ̥²ʡ٥åȸ² ( Sino-Tibetan ) Ƥʡǥ͸² ( Na-Dene ) Ȥϱ󤯤ĤʤäƤȤ롥ʤȤʡǥ͸²˥² ( Yeniseian ) δ֤ˤϷǤʸˡþбȸ뤬ʲˤ礤˵;Ϥ롥

Family Tree of the Dene-Caucasian


Сʡɡ꡼ƥ󡦥ޥ塼ޥꥢݥ󥹥 ԡ ˼ ؿʸ޴ա١νӡ2005ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2017-02-07-1] [2012-05-17-1]

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2011-02-07 Mon

#651. ʸθʸ򹪤ߤ˰ [etymology][greek][semantic_change]

diploma Ⱦȵ´Ⱦڽ񡤳ذ̵פ diplomacy ֳפδ֤˷ŪϢ򸫤Ƽ뤳ȤϤ䤹̣ŪϢ뤳Ȥ񤷤diploma Ϣϡ̣ζŪ̻Ūʹ̣碌빥Ǥ롥츻ҤȤƤߤ褦
Ѹ diploma ϥꥷ díplōma ƥ diplōma Ф17ˡָʸȵذȾפȤƱѸäƤꥷ díplōma ϡdi- 2ĤΡ+ ploûn ֤פʬϤ졤ޤʤλˡפ̣ȾޤˤȤƼͿ줿ˡȾ䤽¾θʸ diploma ȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤä
diploma ƻ diplomatic ϡָʸΡפ򸶵ȤƤָʸΤޤޤΡסʸΡפθȯŸ ( ex. diplomatic copy, diplomatic edition ) ǡdiploma ָʸפˡֳʸפؤ褦ˤʤꡤ18꤫ diplomatic ֳʸˤΡפθӤӤƤ롥顤ֳפ̣ diplomacy ֳʸȯԤ͡ʡᳰ򴱡ˡפ̣ diplomat ޤ줿Ǹˡ19 diplomatic 3θֳŪʡͻȤιߤʡǡͤʤפȯŸ
di- + ploûn бƥηǤ double ܤΡ, duple ŤΡ, duplex ϢΡ, duplicate ܤˤ, duplicity ¡פʤɤѸäƤƤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2011-03-09-1]

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2011-02-06 Sun

#650. ˥ȥˡ§ [grimms_law][substratum_theory][armenian][gender]

ε[2011-02-05-1]ŪƤǤ륢˥ ( Armenian ) 夲θϱѸˡʥޥˡ˸ˤפʼͿƤ롥ϡޥ˾̾⤤ˡ§ ( Grimm's Law ) ȤѲ˴ؤǤ ( see [2009-08-08-1], grimms_law )
ˡ§ϡĸ3ĺޥǤ줾̵̵໤ϢβѲؤϡ[2009-10-26-1]ε (5) Ǹ褦ˡޥˤߤ븲ħ1ĤǤ롥βѲ˻ᡤʤɤΤ褦ˤĤƤʸξڵ˴Ťƹͻ뤳ȤϤǤʤޥκǤפħˤĤƲ¬ǤʤȤξˤɤΤ˰θꤲճʸ줬롥줬˥
˥Ǥϡޥɤˡ§ȤۤƱѲ˻㤨Сĸĺ¸Ƥ Sanskrit Latin θ٤ Arm. berem / Skr. bhárāmi "I bear", Arm. kin / Skr. gna "woman", Arm. khan / Latin quam "what" ʤɤǤ롥ŪˤŪˤξβѲΤ˰̴طϤʤޤΩȹͤʤФʤʤ˥ѲϥޥѲڵ·äƤΤǡԤβˤҥȤͿƤΤǤϤʤȴԤΤǤ롥
˥μϤθѻȡĺη󤬡ĸηǤϤʤѲ˻̤äƤ롥Ĥޤꡤ˥ϥν줫鲻ŪʱƶβηϤ饳βηϤؤȿܤΤǤϤʤŪˤϡ˥üԤˤä줿轻̱ȤθβηϤäޤޥ˥˾괹ΤǤϤʤϡ[2010-06-17-1][2011-01-24-1]εǤ⿨줿ظƶ ( substratum theory ) ȸƤФ벾Ǥ롥켫ΤϿ¬ǤʤΤΡꤵƤظ줬ǤʤߤǤ⥳˳ǧǤȤפǤ롥
ޥɤˡ§ˤĤƤ substratum theory ƤƤΤΡϴظȲꤵ줬ߤϼϤ¸ߤʤޤǼ夤Ǥ롥Ӥ벻Ѳ֤֤֤ä˥ƤꡤǤβϤ⤦פζȤȤˤʤСˡ§ˤĤƤδظƶˤĤȤΤǤ롥Meillet ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Quant à l'Arménie, l'introduction d'un parler indo-européen s'y est produite à date historique; et, d'autre part, le système des occlusives arméniennes, qui est tout à fait particulier, est identique à celui d'un groupe de langues voisines, de famille autre, le groupe caucasique du Sud, dont le représentant le plus connu est le géorgien. L'action étrangère, que la théorie seule fait supposer pour le germanique, est donc indiquée par des faits positifs pour l'arménien. On conclura de là que la mutation consonantique du germanique est due au maintien de leurs habitudes d'articulation par les populations qui ont reçu et adopté le dialecte indo-européen appelé à devenir le germanique. (40--41)

˥ˤĤƤСΰ⤿餵줿Τ˻ΤȤǤ롥ξ塤˥ĺηϤϡȼǤϤ뤬̤θ²°ٸ췲ηϡǤ褯Τ줿ɽȤƥ른󤲤뤳ȤǤηϤƱǤ롥äơޥˤĤƤŪʲˤȤɤޤ餶ʤαƶ˥ˤĤƤѶŪʻ¤ˤäƼΤǤ롥鼡Τ褦˷Ť뤳ȤǤ롥ޥλҲܤϡޥȸƤФ뤳ȤˤʤƼ͡ȯݻȤ˵Τȡ


Meillet, A. Caracteres generaux des langues germaniques. 2nd ed. Paris: Hachette, 1922.

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2011-02-05 Sat

#649. ˥ [armenian][indo-european][map][indo-european_sub-family]

ΤʤǤ⥢˥ ( Armenian ) ϱƤ ( see [2009-06-17-1], [2010-07-26-1] ) 1ĤΩɤƤʤطΤ줬¾ˤʤȤΤͳ1875ǯΩɤȤǧޤǤϡ췲˶ʬƤ
˥ϥ̮ ( the Caucasus Mountains ) ˰֤륢˥¹ the Republic of Armenia; 1991ǯΩˤθѸǤ롥̮ӡȥ륳ʤɤͭ˰8äƤȤ롥¸ǸŤʸ5˸ŵ˥줿Ǥʥ˥ϡ300ǯ˥ꥹȶ줿ǽιǤˡߤ2ʬƤꡤήʤüԿ͸670ͤǡ˥ˤβȾ롥

Map of Armenia

̱͡²Ƥ줫αƶäǤϥȥ륳졤߽졤ꥷ졤ä˥ڥ륷줫μѸ¿Ǥ롥ޤ²Ǥ륳˰ϤޤƤ뤿ˡθ줫ʸˡ䲻ؤζƶǧ롥㤨С˥ϸѸƱͤ˰ˤʸˡ ( grammatical gender ) 礤Ƥ뤬 ( see [2010-08-27-1] ) ʸˡ⤿ʤαƶȹͤƤ (Baugh and Cable 24--25) ʳʤˤĤƤ7ʤ¸ƤΤǡʸˡξü򡤱Ѹˤˤߤ褦ʰŪʶޤοΰĤȤΤ񤷤ˡ
θ줬ʤȾҤ¤ϡˤ錄äƤ岦եꥮ ( Phrygia; 11) äƤեꥮ ( Phrygian ) Ȥδطʤڵ򤫤鼨Ƥ롥
²α󤤿̤ǤȤС˥ȱѸϤۤȤɤʤʤ heathen θ츻˥˥줬طƤȤ⤬ˡ˥ϡѸˡʤΤˤϥޥˡ˾Τ礭ѲΤ˽פʼͿƤ롥ˤĤƤεǡ
˥ʸˤˤĤƤϡʲε򻲾ȡ

Ethnologue report for Armenian
Armenia -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia
Armenia -- CIA: The World Factbook

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.

Referrer (Inside): [2011-02-08-1] [2011-02-06-1]

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2011-02-04 Fri

#648. űѸθäѸ [oe][lexicology][word_formation][thesaurus][synonym]

űѸθäޤǤˤɤ¸Ƥ뤫ɤüˤĤƤ[2010-07-21-1]εˤűѸä絬ϤʾüϡѸ줬Ѹʹߤ˥ե󥹸ϤȤ͡ʳ줫Ūʱƶ¿줬Ѹ֤˻äȤ뤳Ȥ¿ü¥ʤ뤢ħűѸηϤߤƤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤХ顤űѸäξüˤĤƽҤ٤ƤսѤ褦

⤦ĤξüθϡʤƱǰθ¸ߤƤŪطǤ롥줬üƤ٤ˡ췲ΤȤȤʬ򤷤ƤϾǮ­븦ǤꡤҤȤ⾩夷ƤŴѸμ» þeod ֹ̱²פӤʣ줢뤤ϡȯŪ þeoden ּĹҡפ̥ޥޡgeþeode ֡äˤȤСפȷӤĤƤʸΤ٤Ƥο²طȤȤ˾äƤޤäWer ˡͺפ werod ġפˤĤƤƱͤǤ롥ˤĤơŴѸ켭ŵȰʾ˼ΤϤʤѸ줬ꤨȸΤƤޤθ¿ͤǡФмҲŪǤäꡤŪǤäꤹ롥(22)


þeod ϸűѸǤϹٸ줫ĴܸǤꡤ˴Ťʣ줬¿¸ߤþeod 濴ȤϢäűѸüԤΡֹ״ѡ̱²״ѡҤƤѤɽƤȤäƤǤϤʤþeod Ȥ켫Τ餫λǽ˿षĤˤϾüƤޤȡäѤƤפƤޤȤˤʤꡤϢä⤽¸ߴפ򼺤Ȥˤʤ롥Ϥơþeod Τ˺뤳ȤˤʤΤǤ롥ʤȤˡűѸθϴȤʤ򸵤ˤʣ ( composition ) ( derivation ) ˤäħŤ뤿ˡ줬üƤޤȴϢäȤʤ꤬ȤȤǤ롥
ХʼˤȴϢáʽˤȤδطŪطפȸƤǤΤ϶̣礬뤳ȤˤäƲȿä٤ƤȤʤꡤʡѡˤΤΤǽʤʤȤߤȤɽ˱Ƥ롥
Ȥʤ þeod ü͡1Ĥˤϼ˸Ƥ줫ΰϤѤȻפ롥Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary ˤȡþeod "the external world > the living world > people > people > [noun]" ι˸Ĥ뤳ȤǤ롥18ŪǯȤȤ󼨤褦

wordfirst year
thede855
folkc888
lede971
mannishOE
birtha1300
nationc1330
peoplea1375
tongue1382
race1572
family1582
the mass1621
public1709
nationality1832
peoplet1872
peoplehood1879
La Raza1927
ethnic minority (group)1945
ethnogenesis1962


þeod ȤξüϡºݤˤϽ˿ʹԤƤꡤ1400ǯ餤ޤǤϻѤƤɽįȡþeod ǡä櫓ǤϤʤѸ¾ȤΤ᤮礤Τʤǽ˺ƤäȤʥꥪǤ롥

ݡ롦Х ס رѸθá١ҡʸ˥ӡ1976ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-05-08-1] [2011-05-28-1]

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2011-02-03 Thu

#647. million ʾ礭ñ [numeral][bre][blend]

ε[2011-02-02-1]ǡbillion ʾñ̤ɽ魯ͤѸȸʥꥹѸδ֤ǿäƤꡤѤˤդפ뤳ȤˤĤƽҤ٤billion ˤĤǤˡmillion ʾ礭ñ̤αѸɽˤĤɽǤޤȤƤߤ
million -on ϥե󥹸 ( augmentative ) ǡ礭 mille ˡפΰդǤ ( see [2009-08-30-1] ) 礭ñ̤Ǥϡmillion -(i)llion ڤФ졤˥ƥοƬ֤ȤˤʤäƤ롥-(i)llion ŪʷǤȤڤФ줿Ȳ᤹ΤǤϤʤbi- + million 󤵤줿blend ֺפǤȤ⤢ꤦ ( see [2011-01-18-1] )

AmE and BrE old-fashioned BrEܸ
million106millionɴ
billion109milliard??????
trillion1012billion
quadrillion1015 ??????
quintillion1018trillionɴ
sextillion1021 ??????
septillion1024quadrillion
octillion1027 
nonillion1030quintillionɴ
decillion1033 
undecillion1036sextillion
duodecillion1039 
tredecillion1042septillionɴ
quattuordecillion1045 
quindecillion1048octillion
sexdecillion1051 
septendecillion1054nonillionɴϺ
octodecillion1057 ε
novemdecillion1060decillionͳ¾
vigintillion1063 ͳ¾
 1069undecillion̵
 1072duodecillion 
 1078tredecillion 
 1084quattuordecillion 
 1090quindecillion 
 1096sexdecillion 
 10102septendecillion 
 10108octodecillion 
 10114novemdecillion 
 10120vigintillion 
centillion10303  
 10600centillion 

Referrer (Inside): [2024-05-17-1]

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2011-02-02 Wed

#646. billion [numeral][bre]

ɤθǤ⡤ޤ٤⤯ȯˡˤԵ§Ǥ뤳Ȥ¿ܸǤϡ֤ҤȤס֤դפФơ֤ˤס֤סʼˤФơ֤ʤʤסʼˡ֤褦סȬˤ֤Ϥס󽽺СˤʤɡϿԤʤ
ѸǤηŪŦȡ̾ hundred, thousand, million two hundred, three thousand, four million Τ褦 -s ΤĤʤñʣƱɽȤƤ hundreds of students, thousands of fans, millions of years Τ褦 -s ȼ
ơmillion ξñ̤Ǥ billion 嵭Τ褦˿񤦤ϻؤͤդɬפ롥billion ϰŪˤϡ10 ( = one thousand million ) ̣뤬ʥꥹѸǤϡ1 ( = one million million ) ̣Ʊͤˡñ̤Ǥ trillion ϰŪˤϡ1פʥꥹѸǤϡ100פǤ롥˾ñ̤Ǥ quadrillion, quintillion ʤɤǤ⡤ѸȸʥꥹѸλؼͤ˺롥ĤޤȤˡǤϡ100פȤƼ1000ܤƤ椯׻ǤΤФơʥꥹˡǤϡ100פΤ٤Ƿ׻ȤȤǤ롥
billion = 1פбطϸʥꥹˡǤȤϤäƤ⡤20ȾФޤǼºݤѤƤΤդפ롥billion 17νꤳ˥ե󥹸줫Ѥ줿ե󥹸θ1002ɽ魯1פǤꡤ줬ѸɥĸäȤ˥ե󥹤䥢ꥫ3夺Ŀڤ봷ȯã1001000ܤɽ魯10פΰ̣Ѥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ˡֱ1Сʩ10פȤΩ뤳ȤˤʤääϤǽʤꥹѸ20ȾФ饢ꥫΡ10פΰ̣̲ե󥹸1949ǯʹߤȤΡ1פ˲󵢤Τ褦ʣʲФơߤϡֱ10Сʩ1פȤ޼夤Ƥ롥
ꥹѸǤϡ嵭Τ褦Ūǯޤ billion 1פؤƤȤ⤢ꡤߤǤ̣ۣ椵ӽ٤ʸ̮Ǥ billion λѤ򤱤٤Ȥ⤵롥Quirk et al. (6.63n [p. 394]) Ѥ롥

One thousand million (1,000,000,000) is called one billion in the American system of numeration. In the UK, billion has traditionally been used for 1,000,000,000,000 (1012), corresponding to one trillion in the US. However, the American usage where billion = 109 is now often used also in the UK by people who are ignorant of the double meaning of the word. It is not used by scientists, engineers, and mathematicians according to the British Standards Institution, which recommends that the use of billion, together with the equally ambiguous trillion (1012 or 1015) and quadrillion (1015 or 1018), should be avoided.


ѤκǸ "together with . . ." ϡѸˡȸʥꥹˡȤȤʸ̮ȤȤǤС"together with the equally ambiguous trillion (1012 or 1018) and quadrillion (1015 or 1024)" ֻѼԡˤȤʤ٤ȤǤϤʤ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-05-17-1] [2011-02-03-1]

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2011-02-01 Tue

#645. Ѹ [language_death][lexicology]

ܸΡֻפϡѸǤ "dead language" "obsolete word" 2Ĥθͤ롥켭ŵ٤ˤȡ

(1) ΤϻȤƤߤǤϻѤƤʤ졥奮ꥷ졦ҥåȸʤɡ
(2) ΤϻȤƤߡ̤ˤϻѤʤʤä졥Ѹ졥


ʲεǤ (1) ֻס(2) ѸפȸƤʬ뤳Ȥˤ롥ˤĤƤϡΥ֥Ǥ language_death γƵǼ夲Ƥ줬ǤȤˤϡʪǤƱͤˡ󥿥ʴȼΤǤʤȿˡˤϤüԶƱΤλۡʸˤͤޤäƤꡤ줬ǤȤȤϡʵϿĤƤʤ¤ˤŪ仺ʱ˼ȤȤǤ롥λϿˤȤäƤ»Ǥ롥
ѸˤĤƤϥ֥ŪˤȤϤޤʤäλ٤Сñ٥ξǤ̾糧󥿥ʸݤȤϤȤ館ʤ줽ΤΤǤ櫓ǤϤʤҤʤΤǡ⤷ʤñˤ춦ƱΤλۡʸˤŽ̤ƤΤǤꡤξǤϡ᤹Ȥ񤷤Ū仺ξǤǤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥羮ϤΤΡ˭ʸŪäƤСѸŪˤƱ»ʤΤ⤷ʤ
Τ褦˻פäΤϡ˭ʸŪ򼨤ݡ롦ХʸϤ˽вäǤ롥ХϡξüѲˤĤƼΤ褦ɾƤ롥

üβδ֤ɤǤ졤λǤϷŪȸ̤ޤǤ⸽¤ΤΤǤꡤλʤΤʹ֤ʸˬȤƱ褦ˡǤͤοǤĤΤǤ롥λȤȤˡΤ뤤ʸŪŪǰŪ¸ߤΰҤѤäƤΤǤ롥Ȥ̤1줢뤤Ͽ줬줿Ϥ줿ΰ̣ΰ᤹Ȥˤ补Ȥյξ夫ºݤˤϲ⼺Ƥʤˤ衤ʸ̮ϤϤƱǤϤʤ̣ΰܹԤʤΤϿǯΤΤȤǤʤΡ٤ƤƤƿ͡Ѥꡤޤäơΰ̣ϡΤФ̵ռǤȤϤߤʤʲαƶΤǤ롥(16--17)


ξüѲˤŪˤʤäƤƤϸĤळȤ餪ܤĤʤȸäƤޤФʤΤθ˴ؤ¤ꤳΤ褦ʴɬפʤΤʤȻפ
ơѡפɽ魯Ѹ obsolete ϡƥ obsolescere βʬ obsolētus ͳ褷16˱Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ob- ִˡ+ sol(ere) ִ + ēscere ?ϤפȷʬϤ졤βʬΤȤ "grown out, worn out, fallen into disuse" ۤɤΰդȤʤ롥OED ǤϡѸθФˤû ( dagger or obelisk ) ȸƤФ֢פɸĤ롥ûϽͤΩäξݷͳ褹Ȼפ졤Ūǯɽ魯ΤѤΤǡѸɸΤˤդ路ȤȤ
;̤ǯܸλʡѸˤ's HomePageȯΡ֥ʥʻ켭ŵפ˼ϿƤο˶Фäʤʸաʸա

ݡ롦Х ס رѸθá١ҡʸ˥ӡ1976ǯ

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