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2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ε#1524. Ѹˤλʬ ([2013-06-29-1]) ơܸˤλʬܸˤĤƤ⡤٤ʬϸԤοȤäƲǤϤʤΤ2Ĥλʬ1ܤϡܸ쳵 (pp. 282--83) ˼ƤʬȤˤΡեåȤ˶ʬ̾ΤͿƤ롥
| 1. | B.C. 13000 ? A.D. 600 | ʸʯ | |
| 2. | 600 ? 784 | Ļɻ塡200ǯ | |
| 3. | 784 ? 1184 | ʿ¡塡400ǯ | |
| 4. | 1184 ? 1603 | ҡĮ塡400ǯ | |
| 5. | 1603 ? 1867 | ͻ塡300ǯ | |
| 6. | 1868 ? 1945 | Ⱦ塡80ǯ | |
| 7. | 1946 ? | ¸Ⱦʿ塡70ǯ |
| I | II | III | IV | V |
| ɻȤ | ||||
| ʿ» | ||||
| һ | ||||
| Į | ||||
| ͻ | ||||
| ͻ | ||||
| ʹ |
ɸ periodisation γƵ͡˰äƤޤtimeline γƵǼαѸǯɽǤƤѸˤ˴ؤ֥ʤΤǡűѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹ졤ѸʤɡƻθƾΤϰϤ˴ؤμȤƤβϻܤƤۤ褤ȻפäΤǰʲ˵
̸ˤλʬϸ줽ΤΤƱͤɤưΤǤꡤ줾ǤȤΤϤʤºݡԤοȤäƤ礲ǤϤʤۤɤѸˤܸˤ㳰ǤϤʤԴ֤Ǵˤ䤫ʹդ뤳ȤϳΤǤꡤ֤ζڤܤǯ夬פʤʤɺϤΤΡߤˡײǽʤΤǼºݾ礭ʤʲ˵Τϡ̩ʤڤǯʬ䤹äѸ˻ʬŪƤΤ1ĤǤϤ롥ͤΤ˸űѸλޤƤ롥٤Ƥǯɽ魯 circa ʤ褽ˤä줿٤ȤϤȤ꤬ʤΤǡҤȤޤϤդǡ
| ϸ (Proto-Indo-European) | -- 4000 BC | ||
| ϸޥ (Proto-Germanic) | 4000 BC -- 500 BC | ||
| ϸűѸ (Proto-Old English) | 500 BC -- 450 | ||
| űѸ (Old English) | űѸ (Pre-Old English) | 450 -- 700 | 450 -- 1100 |
| űѸ (Early Old English) | 700 -- 900 | ||
| űѸ (Late Old English) | 900 -- 1100 | ||
| Ѹ (Middle English) | Ѹ (Early Middle English) | 1100--1300 | 1100 -- 1500 |
| Ѹ (Late Middle English) | 1300--1500 | ||
| Ѹ (Modern English) | Ѹ (Early Modern English) | 1500--1700 | 1500 -- 1900 |
| Ѹ (Late Modern English) | 1700--1900 | ||
| Ѹ (Present-Day English) | 1900 -- |
ε#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) ǡζ̤Ȥ뤿οǰѸƳϴϢơѼ郎 (heteronomous) ǤϤʤ (autonomous) ǧꤵ뤿ˡ2ĤΰۤʤबȤȤ
ɥĤμҲؼ Heinz Kloss Ƴгǰˡɸ Abstand language Ausbau language 롥Trudgill Ѹ콸ˤС줾켡Τ褦롥
Ausbau language (German /ˈausbau/) A concept due to the German sociolinguist Heinz Kloss. A variety which derives its status as a language, rather than a dialect, not so much from its linguistic characteristics, like an Abstand language, but from its social, cultural and political characteristics. These characteristics will normally involve autonomy and standardisation. Norwegian and Swedish are regarded as distinct languages, not because they are linguistically very different from one another --- there is clear mutual intelligibility --- but because they are associated with two separate, independent nation states, and because they have traditions involving different writing systems, grammar books and dictionaries. Ausbau is the German word for 'extension' or 'building up'. Note that when new Ausbau languages are being developed through language planning, planners will often make the most of what Abstand is available. For example, Ivar Aasen, the developer of the form of Standard Norwegian now known as Nynorsk deliberately modelled it on those (western) dialects which were least like Danish, which had hitherto been the standard language of Norway. There is no widely used English equivalent for this term, but 'language by extension' is sometimes employed. (11--12)
Abstand language (German /ˈapʃtant/) A concept developed by the German sociolinguist Heinz Kloss. A variety of language which is regarded as a language in its own right, rather than a dialect, by virtue of being very different in its linguistic characteristics from all other languages. The degree of linguistic distance (German 'Abstand') between this variety and other languages is such that, unlike Ausbau languages, there can be no dispute as to its language status. Basque, the language spoken in northern Spain and southwestern France, is a good example of an Abstand language. It is clearly a single language, because its dialects are similar. And it is clearly a language rather than a dialect because, since it is not related historically to any other European language, it is completely different in its grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation from the neighbouring languages, French and Spanish . . . . There is no widely used English equivalent for this term, but 'language by distance' is sometimes employed. (1--2)
гǰѸˤ˱ѤǤͤȡ㤨ɤˤƥƥե줬ҤäƤҲŪˤäơѸϡҲŪΩ줳夫äΤΡï⤬ǧ1ĤΩ (autonomous) ǤϤäʤʤСñ˱ѸϥƥեȤϤޤǻĤʤ Abstand language ȤեϥɤˤƤѸϰ̤⤫äեˤƤϥƥαƤˤäƤषѸξ٤ΩϴäեϸҤƥȤޤ˻Ƥꡤ˽° (heteronomous) ؤȹ߳ʤͤʤեϡƥˤäƼ autonomy 줫ͤAusbau language ȤΩϰ̤ɬפäΤǤ롥#653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡƥȥեθŪʶᤵäƤȤʤꡤֻκѤ etymological_respelling Ѹˤʾˤ˵äƤȤϡƥФξδطۤʤäƤʤε Abstand Ausbau гǰळȤǤΤǤϤʤ
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
ؤӼҲؤθŵŪ1Ĥˡ (language) (dialect) ζȤ꤬롥ζŪ뤳Ȥϡ¿ξ硤[2013-06-05-1]ε#1500. Ϣ³פȡˡζ̤ƤĤʤƺѤ褦 "a linguistic variety" ʸѼˤȤʽѸ줬¸ߤΤҲŪˤƳǰζ̤ĤȤ⤢롥ξ硤ѸȤƼ´ȼäָפȡפȤѸۤäƻȤ³ƤޤȤˡ⤢뤬ǤϳŪˤƶ̤ĤȤĥޤäƤޤ餤롥
ʤΤɸ autonomy heteronomy ȤФγǰautonomous ѼȤϡ⤫ϽѼΤʤǤȤ櫓ҤѼȤƤߤʤ졤ΩȤơʤ۲νѼ«ͤפѼؤheteronomous ѼȤϡ⤫⳰ΩȤƤϰ̤դ줺̤ˤ autonomous Ѽ˽°ѼؤŪˤСautonomy Ȥϱߤ濴ǤꡤߤΤǤ⤢Ȥheteronomy ȤϤαߤ濴ʳˤäơ濴ظɽǤ롥
гǰ褯Ǥ褦ˡTrudgill Ѹ콸
autonomy A term, associated with the work of the Norwegian-American linguist Einar Haugen, which means independence and is thus the opposite of heteronomy. Autonomy is a characteristic of a variety of a language that has been subject to standardisation and codification, and is therefore regarded as having an independent existence. An autonomous variety is one whose speakers and writers are not socially, culturally or educationally dependent on any other variety of that language, and is normally the variety which is used in writing in the community in question. Standard English is a dialect which has the characteristic of autonomy, whereas Cockney does not have this feature. (12)
heteronomy A term associated with the work of the Norwegian-American linguist Einar Haugen. Dependence --- the opposite of autonomy. Heteronomy is a characteristic of a variety of a language that has not been subject to standardisation, and which is not regarded as having an existence independent of a corresponding autonomous standard. A heteronomous variety is typically a nonstandard variety whose speakers and writers are socially, culturally and educationally dependent on an autonomous variety of the same language, and who look to the standard autonomous variety as the one which naturally corresponds to their vernacular. (58)
ѸȤƤΡָפȡפؼΤ줾 autonomy vs heteronomy ȤФƻ autonomous vs heteronomous ȤƵҤǤ褦ˤΤοǰѸζ̡ɸѼɸѼζ̤ȤҲŪΩȰ¸ȤȤ館ľɾ롥ϢơRomain (14--15) βͭѡ
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: OUP, 2003.
Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.
εǽˤĤơ#523. εǽȸѲ ([2010-10-02-1]) #1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1]) εϤᡤfunction_of_language γƵǵƤεǽվǤĤ뤳ȤϤǤ뤬ҲŪǽȤ2̤ mutual intelligibility identity marking (acts of identity) ȤȤˤʤ#426. ѸѼΥԥߥåɥǥ ([2010-06-27-1]) #1360. 21¿εƤϱѸХХˤ뤫 ([2013-01-16-1]) Ǥ夲ФγǰǤ롥
mutual intelligibility Ȥϡ뽸⡤뤤ϰۤʤ뽸Ĵ֤ǤΥߥ˥ǽˤȤεǽǤ롥ϡ̤ˡκǤ뵡ǽȹͤƤ롥Ȥºݤˤ identity marking εǽפΤۤϤǤ롥ҲؤǤϾQȤʤäƤ뤬üԤμҲŪ°μʤǤ롥üԤϡư̤ơ̱²ʸ顤ȡ̤ʤɤ°Ƥ뤳ȤȤ˰ռŪˡ̵̤ռŪɸ롥mutual intelligibility identity marking ƯϤϤФȿиǤꡤԤϼ¾ͻ¤ϤȤơԤϼ¾̤ϤȤƺѤƤ롥ˤϡߤΩ2ǽ¿쾯ʤХȤʤ顤ߤƤΤǤ롥
դ줿֥륤¿ԤפΤʤǡʸˤϡ嵭2ĤεǽˤĤơʲΤ褦˾Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥
ϤˤĤεǽȸĤϡߥ˥Ǥ֤˸¤궦ƱΤη«Ǥ褦Ȥȡ̥ޥޡͤ (grégaire) ǽǤꡤ⤦Ĥϡդ˥ߥ˥¿˹褦Ȥ (vehiculaire) ǽǤ롥ФĤ줿俦ȾΥ르Ǥꡤ۸֤Ǻ¤ΰջ̤Ϥ뤿ޤ줿ԥ䡤ͥƥ֤ǻȤñʱѸ줬ɽǤ롥ΰĤˤʤѸ줬פȤƿ͡ΰռ˼βȤѸϥХ벽ΥǥȤٲ롥Ѹ줬ˤʤСѸüԤδ֤ͥƥüԤӽƱѸ첽褦Ȥߵޤꡤϰ䳬ˤѸκ̲¿Ͳʤˤ衤Υǥƥƥǽȥߥ˥ǽȸ뷲ǽǽϡظȸ١ʰȬˤʬϤδä˿ФθǰǤ롥 (157)
ˤǽȷǽξ뤳ȤȤȡȤǽǽŤȤʤäȤϷǽǽŤȤʤä줾ؤƤ褤եȤƤαѸ (ELF) ǽ٤ȯãȿѤȤơ٤ϱѸͥƥġʤƱѸͥƥĤˤǽƤȤƶϡߤ̤αѸ¿ͲͻǽפʻǤ롥
륤ˡ ԡˡظȤϲ١ҡ2000ǯ
ѸǼư֤ "passive voice"ǽư֤ "active voice" ȸƤ֤ʤ֡פ "voice" бΤʸˡƤϼŪʤɤʸǤưɽ魯ưȤɤΤ褦˴ؤ뤫ɽ魯ΤǤꡤưλѤͭ͡ʡ֡ˤɸ뵡ǽäƤ롥Τ褦ܸΡ֡פȤѸϤ뤫⤷ʤʤѸǤ "voice" ɽΤǤ롥ǡĴ٤Ƥߤ뤳Ȥˤ
ޤϡOED 顥voice, n. θ13ˤȡʸˡѸȤƤ "voice" ν15ȾǤΦʸǤϽФ16ʤΤǡѸǤλѤΤۤᤤȤˤʤˡǽ2ĵ褦
c1425 in C. R. Bland Teaching Gram. in Late Medieval Eng. (1991) 160 (MED), Þo secund coniugaciun..of passyf wowus, þat as -e- long befor þo -ris indecatyf, as doceris.
a1450 (a1397) Prol. Old Test. in Bible (Wycliffite, L.V.) (Cambr. Mm. II. 15) (1850) xv. 57 A participle of a present tens, either preterit, of actif vois, eithir passif.
MED voice (n.) 6(a) ˤС15ʸˡѸȤơ㤬³ȵ롥̣Ȥˡ̾Ρֳʡ (case) ɽ魯Τ voice ѤƤ㤬롥ޤ OED voice, n. θ14ˤϡѤǤϤ뤬ֿ;Ρ (person) Ȥ⤢롥ĤޤȤvoice ϡˤơФưΡ֡פɽ魯ۤȤˤ̾ưζƤɽ魯ȤǤ餷
Ϣơƥʸˡǡ֡פ "genus" ȸƤФ뤬̾ƤǤ "gender" ȤƱǤ롥Ѹ줬ʻˤ餺ʬŽդ٥ȤƶѤ뤳Ȥ롤⤦1ĤȤƲǤ롥ʸˡѸλȤʸˡȤ°ήɤˤ¸뤿ᡤΰŪѸȸƱꤹˤʸˡˤμɬפȤʤˤϤμϤʤΤǡܺ٤Ω뤳ȤǤʤ
ˤĤơۤ˼꤬Ϥʤȸؼŵ¾äƤߤƹԤäΤճʤȤ Lyons (371--72)
8.3.1 The term 'voice'
The term 'voice' (Latin vox) was originally used by Roman grammarians in two distinguishable, but related, senses: (i) In the sense of 'sound' (as used in the 'pronunciation' of human language: translating the Greek term phōnē, especially of the 'sounds' produced by the vibration of the 'vocal cords': hence the term 'vowel' (from Latin sonus vocalis, 'a sound produced with voice', via Old French vowel). (ii) Of the 'form' of a word (that is, what it 'sounded' like) as opposed to its 'meaning' . . . . the first of these two senses is still current in linguistics in the distinction between voiced and voiceless 'sounds' (whether as phonetic or phonological units . . .). In the second sense, 'voice' has disappeared from modern linguistic theory. Instead, the term has developed a third sense, derived ultimately from (ii) above, in which it refers to the active and passive 'forms' of the verb. (the traditional Latin term for this third sense was species or genus. In the course of time, genus was restricted to the nominal category of 'gender'; and the somewhat artificial classification of the 'forms' of the different parts of speech in terms of genera and species was abandoned.) The traditional Greek term for 'voice' as a category of the verb was diathesis, 'state', 'disposition', 'function', etc.; and some linguists prefer to use 'diathesis', rather than 'voice', in this sense of the term. However, the risk of confusion between the phonetic or phonological sense of 'voice' and its grammatical sense is very small.
voice ˤ衤case ˤ衤gender ˤ衤ʸˡƤѸθ츻̣õäƤ⤢ޤǼ椫ʤΤϡɤΤȤ줾ʸˡƤεǽǤϵҤǤʤʪǤꡤʤСּפַפɽ魯夨ƤޤȤ̾դФˤ٤뤫餫⤷ʤ
ʤΰѤˤ⤢̤ꡤ֡פȤʸˡƤɽ魯Τˡvoice Τۤ˥ꥷͳ diathesis ȤѸ줬Ȥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥 dia- (between) + thesis (position) Ȥǡ֡פۤɤθǤ롥
Lyons, John. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge: CUP, 1968.
ε#1518. ([2013-06-23-1]) ˰³Ƥӥˤ˴ؤꡥϰˤѤƤμҲŪ°ҤŪˡϤꤦƹϰ衤ƸˤĤƷ§äҤ夲̤ʬह뤳ȤǡҲŪʸʤΤۤ뤳ȤϤǤΤ
ε٤Ferguson, Steward ʸ̤θܻؤ㤨Сѥ饰¿Ѿϡ"3L = 2L maj (So, Vg) + 0L min + 1L spec (Cr)" ʤɤɽ롥μ̣Ȥϡ̤Ǥ롥ѥ饰ˤ3줬롥2Ĥ¿ǡɸಽ줿ѸΥƥ̱äǤ륰ˡ줫ʤ롥ϤʤΥơˤŵ졤Ȥƥƥ줬ѤƤʥ, p. 33ˡ
Fasold ϸεǽȳ줿°Ȥǥ벽ߡ Chaudenson ϥѥȥơ˼ä2ץåȤοƤ㤨СFasold ˤ뵡ǽ°δط魯ɽϼ̤ʥp. 40ˡ
| ǽ | ҲŪ˳Ƥ° |
|---|---|
| Ū | 1. ɸಽ |
| 2. λ̱ѤƤ | |
| ̱²Ū | 1. ʤοˤȤäƤ̱²ǥƥƥξħ |
| 2. Υߥ˥ǹѤƤ | |
| 3. ǹ̤äƤ | |
| 4. ƱǽĽפظ줬ʤ | |
| 5. ξħȤƼƤ | |
| 6. ȴط | |
| Ū | 1. äǻѤƤ |
| 2. ¾ԤȤޤƱˡ¾Ԥȶ̤ΤüԤ˹ͤƤ | |
| Ū | 1. ʤȤξɤˤȤäơֳؽפȸʤƤ |
| Ū | 1. ŪݸפΥꥹȤ˺ܤäƤ |
| Ū | 1. ̤θƱʤʾɸಽԤʤƤ |
| Ū | 1. ŵŪ |
①Ūǡ --- ϤĤΤθˤɤΤ餤üԤΤ
②ˡŪǡ --- ¸ΥơϡˡǧƤ뤫ݤǥ䶵ʤɤǻѤƤ뤫ݤ
③ǽŪǡ --- Ψ¿ܹäƤĶȸ줫줫줫
④̻Ūǡ --- γ֤ãΨʤɡ
⑤ħŪǡ --- ¸ߤΰҸؤδ𡤥ߥ˥άʤɡ
⑥Ωǡ --- Ѥδطǽ䴰ʤɡ
⑤⑥ˤĤƤϡŬʷ̤λʤΤǤ롥 (51) ϡȤ櫓④̻ŪǡȤ߹ɬʤƤ롥
üԿãΨʤפħŪǡ˴ؤƤ䤨ѲƤΤǤ롥ȤǡηΩɾˤϡߤΤޤޤѲθɬפ롥顤괰ǸΨŪ¿οǥ뤬ȤС̤ΥץˤäƤǤȤСԥ塼줿ǥƤߤ褦Ͽǡ䤨ŪϤ졤ưŪɾľܤʤޤޡΤ
줬֤ȤȤˤμҲŪʰ֤ŤѲȤȤΤȤǤ롥ѸȤäƤ⡤μҲŪʥơŪưϿӤͭʼҲŪΩСѸˤ˿ˡɲä뤳Ȥˤʤ
륤ˡ ԡˡظȤϲ١ҡ2000ǯ
20Ⱦ˼ҲؤȯŸƤʤǡȤʬäƤ#1380. micro-sociolinguistics macro-sociolinguistics ([2013-02-05-1]) ѸȤƶ̤ macro-sociolinguistics ˴ޤޤ1ʬǤ롥ˤȼ̤롥ظȤϲ٤路ϡŪˤϤȤ餺ǤŪΩۤ褦ȤӤƤʲˤĤƤϡ[2013-02-06-1]ε#1381. "interventionist" sociolinguisticsפȡˡ
ϸϤˤ֤δؤβˤĤƤƤ뤬ޤŪˤȤɤޤäƤ롥٥롤ˡƤ顤ʲΤ褦ʬࡦ (69)
٥
* Ū٥
- Ū
- Ū
- ϰŪ
* ˡŪ٥
- ˡ
- ˡ
-
-
- ʤ
ˡ
* Ū
* Ū
*
* λˡ
* ʸ
Ƥ3ˤĤά⤹ȡ֤ؤβˤϡɽˡκñꥹȤʤɤ㤬ޤޤ롥λˡ˴ؤϡ˱ƲäʤФʤʤꡤؤκȸꤹΤΤǤ롥ʸȤǤϡݸΤ褦ʾ̤ϰ̤˰夲ꡤɤθݸ뤳Ȥʤɤꤹ (66)
ȤϡɤΤ褦ʥ٥롤ˡƤǤ졤켫Ȥ뤤üԤȿȤ븫⤢롥ºݡؼԤΤʤˤŪʰոĤΤ⾯ʤʤϤεˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤롥
ؤˤСˡˤäƺΤǤϤʤˤüԤμλʪǤꡤŪҲŪʰϤѲ롥ȤŪʤȤˡʹ֤ϸؤäƸѲβ˲ʪήѤơѲߡƯ褦ȤΤ(75)
ˤϡΤ褦ˤҤ١Ф뿵Ť٤Ƥ롥
γǰΤΤꤲκȤϡʹ֤Ϥɤ٤ޤǰĤθΥѥʣθѤδط˲ǤΤȤΤǤ롥¿㤫餳βǽȤȤ狼뤬ɬפΤΤˡ줬ƤƤ褦ˡͷΥѥȥޥǵǽƤꡤˤȤΤΤʤ̵ޤ줿ΤؼԤԤμ¸ΤʤǺ褦ȤƤ롥ޤˤϼԤ⤢ꡤºݤˤ֤Ĥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ͷΥѥȥޥϤθ³ãΤäơϤߤθϤʳظȤѲθ§ϡ˳Ѳ褦Ȥԡϡͤ˸줿ˤ롤ȤȤüԤˤΰȤ뤫⤷ʤ(147)
륤ˡ ԡˡظȤϲ١ҡ2000ǯ
ḽѸǤ̵ʪλؼоݤȤư뤬Ȥ˵Ͳ (personification) 졤뤤ϽȤư礬롥 (gender of animation) ȤḽѸεȽѸ˵ǽƤʸˡ (grammatical gender) ȤϡͿǧΤʤǤϤʤξԤܼŪ˶̤٤ΤǤ롥ˤͿΤꤹװˤϡʲ3ǧʡؿѸؼŵ pp. 469--70ˡ
(1) á⡦ŵʤɤαƶmoon Phoebe, Luna, Diana ȤƱ뤫Ȥ롥Ʊͤ love Eros, Cupid ꡤwar Mars Ȥ롥ʤűѸ mōna ̾졤lufu Ͻ̾äΤǡ츻ŪʴͿꤵ롥
(2) 츻ŪƶRome ϥƥν̾ Roma ꡤvirtue ϸʩν̾ vertu ꡤdarkness ϸűѸν̾ -nes ꡤ줾쵼ͿƤȤ롥Τ褦˸츻ŪƶꤹǤ⡤ŪϢ³Τ뤤ϸ츻ؤλȤη̤ʤΤ뤤ξԤ̤뤳ȤϤǤʤΤȤϡġˤĤƹθɬפä˹̾ˤĤƤϡ#1028. ʤ̾ȤߤʤƤΤ ([2012-02-19-1]) ȡ
(3) ŪƶоݤФŪ˴Ťͺ硦ʤΤͥʤΡ¿ʤΤȤʤɤ㤬롥Ȥ wind, ocean, summer, anger, death ʤɤȤ nature, spring, art, night, wisdom ʤɤ롥ޤʪʤʤɡžԤͭԤɽ魯ΤФͿŪ (psychological gender) ȸƤӡŵŪ˸ˤνͭԤоʪ she ȸڤ㤬¿ͭԤξˤ he ȸڤ뤳Ȥ⤢ꤦ롥Ϣơ#852. ̾̾ she (1) ([2011-08-27-1]) ڤӡ#853. ̾̾ she (2) ([2011-08-28-1]) ȡ
Ūƶˤ뵼ϼŪǤդǤ뤿ᡤ̣DZϰϤϹϥꥱƬǾ˸ΩƤѸηˤĤƤϡ#890. ƬǾ acronym Ͻ̾¿ ([2011-10-04-1]) ȡ
ʸͺ ƽؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1987ǯ
harbinger , messenger ʻȼԡ, passenger ʾҡ, porringer ʻ滮, scavenger ٤ưʪ, wharfinger Ȼ߾ˤΤ褦ʸˤϡ2n ߤ롥message, passage, porridge ʤɤθӤФ狼̤ꡤ n 츻ŪǤ롥g ֤ n epenthesis 治ź[2011-05-06-1]ε#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragogeפȡˤȹͤ롥
OED ˤȡmessenger ˤĤƤϡAnglo-Norman Picard ˤ n 줿֤ߤȤ顤ɬѸˤΩѲǤϤʤΥեֻαƶˤΤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
ʲϡ6ˤĤ n Τʤ֤νлȡn 줿褽λOED 츻ŵȤƤޤȤΤǤ롥
| Word | First without n | First with n |
|---|---|---|
| harbinger | ?lateOE | ME |
| messenger | ?a1200 | lateME |
| passenger | 1337 | C15 |
| porringer | 1467 | 1601 |
| scavenger | ME | 1530 |
| wharfinger | 1552--53 | 1642 |
'INTRUSIVE' [n] and [ŋ]
§438. The 'intrusive' [n] in messenger, papenjay, &c. and [ŋ] in nightingale and paringale 'equal' (<paregal) is a species of consonantal glide easing the passage between the preceding vowel and the following [ʤ] or [g], and is found chiefly in adopted words; it is perhaps, as has been suggested, associated with a desire to make weightier the middle syllable so as to avoid syncope . . . . It appears to develop at various dates from the thirteenth century (nightingale) onwards. In words in which it is an established feature of StE, e.g. nightingale and messenger, it is regularly shown by the orthoepists.
<g> б벻ۤʤ뤬nightingale ˤƤ g ֤ n Ƥ¤ؤθڤ̣#797. nightingale ([2011-07-03-1]) ε㤬ޤ긫ʤȽҤ٤messenger passenger Ʊͤ˰äƤ٤ȤȤ
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
ݡ롦祷㡼ˤظȻ͡٤ɤ̾#1484. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis ([2013-05-20-1]) ͻҥȤˤʤȻפäƼ˼äƤߤΤषưʪΥߥ˥ȿʹ֤θȤӤܼŪʺۤˤĤܤäʹ֤ǾοʲβεȤ顤Τü֤ФȤƤ
ĤΥݥȤ뤬(1) ʹ֤θΤߤ٤ʻͤȿʤǽʤ餷ȤƵǽ뤳ȡ(2) ʹ֤θʸˤäƷѾƤ椯ȤΡְפη֤Ǥ뤳ȡ(3) ʹ֤θͭؤϤʤưʪˤ¸ߤǾι¤ȵǽαĹˤʤȡ(4) ʹ֤θϿο桤ĤޤηϤʤܼŪŪŪʻǽȤ뤳ȡŦ롥ʲˡ줾ˤĤƽפʲս꤫Ѥ褦
ϳǤƱǤ⤢ΤǡȤƤϥߥ˥ϤȤƤϻͤȿʰռݤ롥 (11)
ƥ䡼롦ɡߤֿʹ֤Ƥ顤ΰ졤줬ͥȤʤ롥ϤǤˡʹְˡưʪο⤷ˤǤƤΤϡмܤȶΰǤġĤޤǤϤäѤΤΰǤäΤաʥΡեˤΰȤʤäΤǤ롥Ρͷդ줿ǤϿʲ®Ҳͻ礷餬ǤƱʸΤΤȤʤ뱿̿äʸϡˤμ˴äƤΤǡʪޤʤäƤǽȿͤȤϰۤʤäơä롥̪˪Τ褦ʿʹ֤ͤ˪ƷԵ㤤ߤʹ֡դĤäȤǡʹʸ٤ĤŤƤ椯ȤϤǤʤ (15--16)
ʹ֤μϡΤޤޤʪʤäɽ魯ȤȯοΥɤϡձưλʪǤꡤǾεǽΤҤȤĤȤʤäΤǡͤΤˤؤʤȤˤʤäο̿ϡʹ֤Ǿ̤ͭǡΤˡǾι¤ȵǽϾѲʤΤǤ롥ˤϡ˸ͭؤϤʤνϡǤưʪ¸ߤ٤ǧʬΤǤ롥 (66)
ѥդȤҤϡηϡפȤθͭʤȡ쿮ηϤȤδطȤͻ쿮ηϤȤϡդˤ̿ηϤǡưʪˤΤ¸ߤʹ֤οؤˤƶ̣뼨Ϳ롥ѥդϰǯĤΤ褦˽ֿʹ֤ˤȤäƤϡդ餫˾Ť줿ɷǤäơưʪ˶̤ʤ٤ƤΤɷƱ¤Ǥ롥Τۤˡˤϳ䤬ꡤ¿оݤޤ롥ǤϡϡưʪξŤ줿ɷȤϡŪˤŪˤ⡤ޤäӤǤʤפư廰ǯˤϤäֳ˴ؤγФɽݤȤϡºߤ쿮桤ʤݿǤ뤬դȡȤȯﴱˤ椯ưʳʶڳСˤ桤ʤοǤ롥ϼºߤݲǤꡤײη줳ޤ˿ʹͭι⼡ŪʤΤǤ롥 (69)
ηϤϿʹ֤ǤηϤ̤ͥ夫줿ΤǤ뤫顤䤹ϫǤ̲Τ֤Ǥϡ˾ä롥ʤ̲ˤߺѤηϤΤۤ˶Ϥ餯ΤǡηϤŪͥȤʤ롥줬̴ħǤꡤҥƥǤƱ롥 (72)
ʤʹ֤θüˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ⼡Τ褦ʵǿƤΤǤȤ#160. Ardi Ϥޤäʤɡ ([2009-10-04-1])#519. εȿʲõ븦ʬ ([2010-09-28-1]) #544. ҥȤȯﴱοʲŬ ([2010-10-23-1])#766. ([2011-06-02-1])#767. ʬ ([2011-06-03-1])#1063. ʹ֤θϤʤ˰¸ƤΤ (1) ([2012-03-25-1])#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1])#1090. ; ([2012-04-21-1])#1281. ū ([2012-10-29-1])#1327. ҥȤθ˶̤7Ĥ ([2012-12-14-1])
ݡ롦祷㡼 ϸ ظȻ͡ǡ١ҡʸ˥ӡ1972ǯ
(syllable) ˤ͡Ϳ줦뤬ƤΤȤơʬβŪʹ (sonority) ˰¸롥ʹ٤ΤΤϡ"the overall loudness of a sound relative to others of the same pitch, stress and duration" (Crystal 442) Τ褦롥ʬŪˤʹ䤹٤ȲǤ롥
ʬʹ٤¬͡ˤʤƤꡤͤˤĤƤϼ¸Ȥ˾ܺ٤ϰۤʤ뤫⤷ʤޤʬ̤ˤĤƤϸԤΤǰפߤƤ롥1ȤơHogg and McCully (33) ˵ƤѸʬ sonority scale
| Sounds | Sonority values | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| low vowels | 10 | /a, ɑ/ |
| mid vowels | 9 | /e, o/ |
| high vowels | 8 | /i, u/ |
| flaps | 7 | /r/ |
| laterals | 6 | /l/ |
| nasals | 5 | /n, m, ŋ/ |
| voiced fricatives | 4 | /v, ð, z/ |
| voiceless fricatives | 3 | /f, θ, s/ |
| voiced stops | 2 | /b, d, g/ |
| voiceless stops | 1 | /p, t, k/ |
| Word | Pronunciation | Sonority values | Peaks = Syllables |
|---|---|---|---|
| modest | /modest/ | 5-9-2-9-3-1 | 2 |
| complain | /compleːn/ | 1-9-5-1-6-9-5 | 2 |
| petty | /peti/ | 1-9-1-8 | 2 |
| elastic | /əlæstik/ | 8-6-10-3-1-8-1 | 3 |
| elasticity | /iːlæstisiti/ | 9-6-10-3-1-8-3-8-1-8 | 5 |
| petrol | /petrəl/ | 1-9-1-7-9-6 | 2 |
| button | /bʌtn/ | 2-9-1-5 | 2 |
| bottle | /botl/ | 2-9-1-6 | 2 |
[I]n any syllable, there is a segment constituting a sonority peak that is preceded and/or followed by a sequence of segments with progressively decreasing sonority values. (Crystal 442)
ˤäƻĺι⤵ϤޤޤŵŪˡëëפΤ줤ʬۤˤʤȤȤSSG ϼƤ롥onset s ǻϤޤҲ (ex. sp-, st-, sk-) ξʤɤǤϤθ§ϵ§Ūˤ뤳ȤΤƤ뤬 SSG ϱѸˤ˰ꤷ§Ǥ롥
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
Hogg, Richard and C. B. McCully. Metrical Phonology: A Coursebook. Cambridge: CUP, 1987.
ѸǤϡ̾ fish ʣƱ fish Ǥ (ex. I saw a school of fish in the river) ä˼बۤʤǤ뤳ȤĴˤ fishes Ȥ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬ξˤ three kinds of fish ʤɤȤ뤳Ȥ¿ޤꥹѸǤϼΰƱˤ餺 fishes Ȥ뤳ȤϤ뤬Ūˤ fish ñʣƱȹͤƤƤ褤뤤ϡʣȤƤ fish ϽŪѤƤΤȹͤƤ褤ǤϡʬŪ fruit hair ʤɤȤˡƤ롥
ñʣƱȤСۤ sheep deer ʤ§Ūʣ deers ⤢ˤפ⤫֤⤷ʤξȤűѸѲ̾ scēap, dēor ̤ꡤʣʡгʤƱˤʤ뤳ȤϸűѸηֵ§˱äƤ롥äơѸñʣƱϸűѸ줫ΰ仺Ȥ롥
Ȥfish θűѸ fisc ϡѲ̾ʤΤʣʡгʷ fiscas Ǥ롥줬 fishes ؤȯŸƤ椯ΤѸǤŪʣ fish Τۤ sheep, deer Τ褦˸űѸΰ仺ȤƤǤʤȤˤʤ롥Ĥޤꡤʣ fish ϸűѸλޤ줿ȹͤɬפ롥
ºݤˡʣ fish ϽѸǽФƤ롥OED ˤȡfish ñƱΤޤŪѤˡ (1b) ϡa1300 Cursor Mundi ˽Ф롥
9395 (Cott.): Foghul and fiche, grett thing and small.
ޤMED fish (n.) (2b) ˤСfish Ū뤤ϼŪ̾ȤƤˡƤꡤ?a1200κȤ Layamon's Brut
Lay. Brut (Clg A.9) 22000: Þer inne is feower kunnes fisc.
긵ˤѸʣǡ١Ǥϡ40ޤǤʣȼ֤ǡ5ΤߤñƱǤ롥ޤ -es ͥˤΤʳǷž뤳ȤˤʤäΤ7ĤΥС Poema Morale ǤϡDܤMܤΤߤʤη֤ѤƤ롥
T(83): He makeð þe fisses in þe sa þe fueles on þe lofte.
J(82): He makede fysses in þe sea. and fuweles in þe lufte.
E1(83): He makede fisses inne þe see. and fuȝeles inne þe lofte
E2(83): He makede fisces in ðe sé. {end} fuȝeles in ðe lufte.
D (159--60): he wrohte fis on þer sae / and foȝeles on þar lefte.
L (83): He makede fisses in þe se 7 fuȝeles in þe lifte.
M (77): He scuppeþ þe fish in þe seo, þe foȝel bi þe lefte.
ʾϡ#12. How many carp! ([2009-05-11-1]) Ǥ夲ѸˤԵ§ʡ֤¿űѸ줫ΰ仺ȤǤѸʹߤγȤƱ餤¿ȤȤդ
ε#1510. scale ڡˤθ츻 sc- ([2013-06-15-1]) ǡsc ɽ蘆ҲˤĤƿ줿űѸ sc ֤ҲϡʳǤ [sk] λҲɽ路Ƥ9 (palatalisation) Ȼ (assibilation) βϤޤꡤ10Ⱦ1100ǯˤ [ʃ] ѲȤp. 356ˡβλĶȽ/ʃ/ βDzλʤɤäƤ͡ʰոΩƤꡤΤФƤʤ1ĤθȤ Campbell (177--78) ȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥
[sk] θ [k] ñΤΤⵯ䤹ƬˤƤϡǽ첻֤ǡ˾ʤȤ900ǯ˸첻֤Ƥ㤨Сscip (ship), scōh (shoe), scyldig (guilty), sceadu (shadow), sceal (shall), scilling (shilling) ǡǤ롥˸ˤϡr ֤ǤƱꡤscrēad (shred), scrēawa (shrewmouse), scrīc (shrike), scrīfan (decree), scrīn (coffer), scrincan (shrink), scrūd (shroud) ʤɤ [ʃ] Ԥʤ줿Ǥϡwasce (wash), þersce (I thresh), asce (ashes), risce (rush), disches (dish's), fisces (fish's) blyscan (blush), wȳscan (wish) Τ褦첻ˤĶǸäޤǤϡæsc (ash), disc (dish), fisc (fish), risc (rush), -isc (-ish), flǣsc (flesh) Τ褦첻θ֤ [ʃ] Ȥʤä
ʤ[ʃ] Ȥʤ餺 [sk] ΤޤĤäΤϡǸ첻֤䡤Ǹ첻θ֤ˤǤ롥fiscas (fishes), *wascan (wash), þerscan (thresh), þerscold (threshold), āscaþ (asks), tosca (frog) frosc (frog), husc (insult), tusc (tooth) ʤɤȤƵ롥θǤϤФλҲž (metathesis) [ks] ȤƼ¸롥㤨Сāxian, dixas, dox (dusk), fixas, frox, flaxe, rixe, toxa, þerxan, þerxold, waxan ǡǤ롥
űѸ˾嵭Τ褦ʲᡤߤǤѸˤ [sk] λҲϰŪˤäƬˤƤϤȤ櫓Ǥ롥դˤСƬ [sk] ĸǤϤʤѸǤǽ⤤ȤȤˤʤ롥ޤϸťΥɸβǽ줫ƥ졤ꥷʤɤβǽscore (ON), ski (ON), skill (ON), skin (ON), skirt (ON), sky (ON), school (L) script (L), skeleton (G)
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
ؤڤ̣ñ scale θ츻ˤĤơOED 츻ŵˤȡOF escaleʳ̡ (cf. F écale) ѤΤǡƬü (aphetic) Ф1300ǯ ME scale ȤƽФMED scāle (n.(1)) ȡˡθʩΤ⡤Frankish *skala (cf. OHG skala) ʤɤμѤȤ졤̤ Gmc *skalō IE *(s)kel- (to cut) ؤɤ夯̣γȤȤƤϡҢ̢ڤȤ褦ʶƻOE scealu (shell) sc(i)ell (shell) ˵ PDE shale Ǵ䡤ťĴˤ shell ʳ̡ˤŪˤƱǤ롥
ƬҲˤĤƤΤ߹ͤСGmc *sk եʤɤեФ [sk] ȤƱѸäΤ scale ǤꡤűѸθФ [ʃ] ȯŸΤ shell ǤȤȤˤʤ롥
ơMED OED Ǥϡscale νФ1300ǯκȤ The Auchinleck Manuscript Guy of Warwick ȤʤäƤ롥Ȥǯ夬1ۤΩ Layamon's Brut ɤǤơᤤǤϤʤȵ˽вä
10642: Nu he stant on hulle & Auene bi-haldeð Hu ligeð i þan stræme stelene fisces mid sweorde bi-georede .. heore scalen wleoteð, swulc gold-faȝe sceldes.
ϻǰʤ鸫νä褦αʸƥȤˤƬϵ§ǤϤʤǤդǤΤΡ scalen ϸ sceldes [ʃ] ƬƧǤȤߤʤΤĤޤꡤ scalen scale ǤϤʤshell θƬҲƤȤȤˤʤ롥MED Ǥ⡤shāle (n.) (b) Brut 㤬Ƥ
Ѹ sc- ֤Ҳ [sk] ʤΤ [ʃ] ʤΤʬˤϡѲμѸ줫ݤʤɤθ츻ŪμȻƱꡤƬιθƥȤˤֻȯδط (Potestatic Substitution Set; [2011-02-20-1]ε#664. littera, figura, potestasפ) ʤɤɬפǤ롥ѸΤߤʤ餺űѸˤ⤢٤ƤϤޤ뤷 sc- ˸¤ääǤϤʤΤ
εǡ#1508. ѸˤɡβDz ([2013-06-13-1]) 夲ȿФȤ⤤ܸǵäƤΤǾҲ𤷤褦
Ūܸζ̸ȯǤϡ2Ĥͭ [g] [ŋ] ̤Ƥ§ȤԤϸƬǡԤϸ첻θˤѤ졤ۤʬۤʤ㤨С䡤ݡʤɤθǤ [g] 졤䡤ƻīʤɤθǤ [ŋ] ʹ줿ԡפʤɤʣ2ǤλϤޤꡤ֤פʤɤƬľ塤ֽޡפʤɤοθޡ֤餬פʤɤε졤֥衼ȡפʤɤμѸˤƤϡǤäƤ [g] ɸŪǤ롥ֽޡפȡֽƸפФʤɤˤ [g] [ŋ] ΩΤǡ̩ʬۼŪΩ줫 /g/ /ŋ/ ϰۤʤ벻ǤȤȤˤʤ롥
嵭ζ̤ϡߤǤڤʤɤʬǤϰҿΤȤݤƤ뤬̤ζ̸ȯȤƤ [ŋ] ѤĤĤ롥1983ǯĴǤϡüԤǯˤ [ŋ] Ψ礭ۤʤäƤ뤳ȤΤ줿ˤȡ1930ǯޤ줿üԤ [ŋ] ξüǤȤطʤˤϡ餬³ˤؽФơ[ŋ] ιԤʤƤʤܤ뵡ȤŦƤ롥
1986ǯ Hibiya ˤƱͤĴǤ⡤ [ŋ] ̻ŪʾüΤ줿80üԤ80--90% [ŋ] ݤäƤ20üԤͭΨϥ˶ᤤ (Hibiya 163) Ĵˡϡˤ͡ǯüԤȯĴ٤뤳Ȥˤ̻ŪѲŪª褦Ȥ "apparent-time" δѻǤꡤüԤĹȼҶդդѲ (age-grading) ǤȤǽӽǤʤ
ǡ"real-time" δѻɬפˤʤäƤ롥Hibiya ϡ1920ˤƤΤĤʸŪڵ並̤ˡ[ŋ] ξüʶʤ̻ŪѲǤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤˤȡʤȤ19ޤǤϡ[ŋ] ηŪѤƤȤȤơHibiya (169) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Kato . . . claims that speakers who were born around 1930 were the originators of the change from word-internal [-ŋ-] to [-g-]; the present investigation, however, indicates that the change began earlier. Those who were born in the 1910's and 1920's have [-g-] more frequently than the speakers from the real-time data base who were born two to three decades earlier. Therefore, the age distribution . . . represents a remarkably smooth and linear sound change in the Tokyo dialect, which is going to completion in the youngest generation of today.
[ŋ] [g] ִ뤳Ȥˤäơξʬۤ졤¾ /ŋ/ βǤȤƤϰ̤ϼ줿ȤäƤ褤ϡ#1021. ѸܸβǤμȿ ([2012-02-12-1]) #1023. ܸμȿ ([2012-02-14-1]) Ǽܸ춦̸βηϡηϤˤƶηŪѲǤꡤæDz (de-phonemicisation) βǤȤ
Hibiya, Junko. "Denasalization of the Velar Nasal in Tokyo Japanese." Towards a Social Science of Language: Papers in Honour of William Labov. Ed. G. R. Guy, C. Feagin, D. Schiffrin, and J. Baugh. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1996. 161--70.
Ѹǡfinger singer ˤ ng ʬȯϰۤʤ롥Ԥ [fɪŋgə]Ԥ [sɪŋə] Ǥ롥ԤΤ褦ˡ-ing ǽ촴ղäˤ [ŋ] ΤߤȤʤդƻѲ̤ long ӵ longer [lɔŋgə] Ǥ롥äơ֤Ĺפȡ˾͡פȤǤϡƱ longer Ǥ [lɔŋgə] [lɔŋə] ȯۤʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ťϸ -ng Ͼ [ŋg] ä岻Ǥˤ뤬14Ⱦ顤ǤɸѸ17顤[ŋŋ] ͳ [ŋ] ؤȲѲ뤲West Midlands Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool ʤɤǤϤβѲϵ餺[ŋg] ݤ줿
Τ褦¿Ǹ -ng [ŋg] [ŋ] Ѳ뤳Ȥˤäơsing [sɪŋ] sin [sɪn] ʤɤǾ (minimal pair) 뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ/ŋ/ Dz (phonemicisation)
ʤưȤƤ -ing ϡ [ɪŋg] [ɪŋ] Ѳۤˡ [ɪn] ؤȯŸѰ۷⤢äѸǤϤФ -in' ɽǡɸŪȤƤ[2013-01-26-1]ε#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴפȡˤŪˤϹԤʤƤ19ˤݼŪ RP ǤѤƤꡤषҤȯȤߤʤƤθ塤Ū˰ҿƤäΤϡֻȯ (spelling pronunciation) αƶȹͤ롥
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
[2013-05-19-1], [2013-06-02-1], [2013-06-03-1]εơƤ taboo θŪյˤĤơBrown and Anderson θػŵ "Taboo: Verbal Practices" ιɤߡtaboo θŪ¦̤˿˵դΤǡ3ۤɥ⤷Ƥ
(1) եꥫ Sotho ˤƤϡƤ̾ˤ뤳Ȥ϶ؤƤ롥Τ褦 taboo ϡPapua New Guinea Kabana ʤ¾θˤ⸫븽ݤǤ ([2013-05-19-1]) ơε̾ι͡פ̣ Moeti ä硤̾ȤƤ moeti ι͡ˤ褦ˤʤ뤬 eta ιˡleeto ιñˡˡmaeto ιʣˡˡetala ˬˡetile ιʴλˡˡetisa ˬ줵ˡetalana ʸߤˬ礦ˤʤɡνˤȤäƴ٤ȴۤɤ˽ʬʷŪϢϢθȤ˴褦ˤʤ롥Ǥñʤ벻ŪʾˡŪʴϢȤŪʸˡŪʥ٥ǤѤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
(2) Ʊ Sotho ǡ嵭Τ褦ʽϡtaboo ȤƤˤ뤳ȤϵʤʸǽȤϵ롥ϡդäդŪʵǽ̤Ƥ뤳Ȥ롥ΤΤĸŪʵǽκۤȤợ
(3) ܸǤϡֻפȤƱˤֻ͡פ߷ֹˤʤǻͤοȤȤϹԤʤƤ롥ܸΡפﵯΰ̵פϢۤȤơͭμ¡פȸ뤳Ȥϡ#507. pear ֻȯ ([2010-09-16-1]) ǸȤǤ롥طʤˤϡƱ۵Ȥä꤬롥Ʊ۵ϡ٤κϤ줢˸졤ɬ taboo ŪװȤʤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤܸäƱ۵¿ϻŦƤɬפ롥ޤΡֻפȡֻ͡פʬȤƤƱĴϰۤʤȤȡܸΡפȡ̵פ⥢ȤϰۤʤȤȤϡƱ۵δϢŤ˺ݤơĶʬŪʱΧʬΤۤŻ뤵뷹ȤȤ롥ϡ䱤Χ°볬ؤȤŪ˴ؤäƤ뤫⤷ʤ
ʤBrown and Anderson εˤĤƤ taboo ˴ؤͭѡ
Brown, E. K. and Anne H. Anderson, eds. Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. 2nd ed. Elsevier, 2006.
ε#1505. ˤ "mouse"-line "house"-line ([2013-06-10-1]) ǡƱ첻Ǥޤ2ĤθˤĤơ줾첻 (isogloss) פʤϡƱͤͭ̾⤦1ĸƤߤ褦ɥġ̤ή饤 (the Rhine) ڤäƤĤäƤꡤϴߤ40餤ϴߤظ褦˿ӤƤ뤿ᡤؤǤ "The Rhenish fan" ȤΤƤ롥Bloomfield (344) ˷ǺܤƤ Behaghel ϿޤǺܤ롥

ޥؤǤϡ"make" 2Ҳ [x] [k] ʬäơϥɥĸϥɥĸʬΤŪǤ롥ͤͤŪȤȤˤʤ뤬#1317. פ ([2012-12-04-1]) ˤŬäƤ롥ϡ¦Ǥ Berlin ˱ӤƤ뤬¦Ǥ Benrath ȤĮǥ饤Ϥ롥¦ "Benrath line" ȸƤФƤ롥ϡˤ Berg ʥ饤ˤ Jülich ʥ饤ˤڤʬ붭ä
Ʊ [x/k] ѰۤǤ⡤1;ñ̾ I ˤƤϰۤʤǧ롥Benrath 鲼ήؤФ餯ԤäȤˤ Ürdingen Ȥ¼̤äƥ饤Ϥ [ix/ik] ǡ "Ürdingen line" ȸƤǤ롥Benrath line ǤϤʤ Ürdingen line ϥɥĸζȤߤʤԤ⤤롥ϡʥݥ쥪θΤȥΤȤʬ붭ä
Benrath line ܤܤȡ¼פɽ魯θҲ˴ؤ [dorf/dorp] äƤ롥Ūˤϥȥ졼ΤζȤ褽פ롥ˤϡ"that" [das/dat] ˱ӤƤ롥ϤŪڤζȳͰפ롥
Benrath line Ürdingen line ˤ [x/k] Ѱۤפϡǯʸˡ (Neogrammarians) ˤ벻ˡ§ΰΧŬѤȤޤƤϤޤʤǤ롥ƱǤޤफȤäơġθפȤϸ¤ʤפͳϡġġŪҲŪʶбƤ뤫Ǥ롥 chaque mot a son histoire "every word has its own history" ([2012-10-21-1]) ǧ롥ζκǸθ "history" ˷ƻ "social" Ȥ
ʾ塤Bloomfield (343--45) ȤƼɮ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
ɸѸ mouse house ˤ [əʊ] 2첻ޤޤƤ롥2첻ϥޥĸǤ *[uː] äߤΥޥ¿Ǥϡ¿¿ͤ餫2첻Ĺ첻̤ξ˸롥㤨СɸɥĸǤ [aʊ] Ǥꡤɸ४Ǥ [øy] Ǥ롥
Ȥ٥륮ȥˤޤϰϿޡʵȡˤƤߤȡ2첻ˤĤƶ̣ʬۤ餫ˤʤ롥ˤϸŤ [uː] ĤäƤꡤ[muːs, huːs] 롥ˤϡϤȤƤʬۤǤϤ뤬߿Ĺ첻 [yː] ޤ [myːs, hyːs] ԤʤƤ롥ޤüˤ [øː] ޤ [møːs, høːs] ١ʬۤƤ롥ơȾˤɸ४ [øy] äƤ롥줾ϰǡۤʤΤΡ"mouse" "house" ξƱĹ첻2첻Ƥ뤳ȤǧǤ롥
Ȥ[muːs, huːs] [myːs, hyːs] ˶ޤ줿Ȥˡξ첻οä [muːs, hyːs] ꥢΤǤ롥ΤȤϡ"mouse" "house" 첻Ѱۤɽ魯 (isogloss) ߤ˰פƤʤȤʪäƤ롥mouse Τۤ "house" ϰˤơŤ2첻ݤäƤȤȤˤʤ롥άϼޤʲ˼

ʬۤΤˡΤ褦ʥʥꥪꤵ롥ΤȤ餯Υեɥdz [yː] ʸṲ̄ͥ椨ˡγŪ첻Ⱦ˹äƤä줫̥ɥĤΥϥԻԤ濴Ȥ⤦1ĤʸαƶˤꡤŤ [uː] ⺬ʬۤƤʸ椬Υꥢդʣˤ֤ĤꤢŶλʪȤ⤤嵭ʬۤΤǤ롥ºݡߤǤ [yː] ʤϤäȷ³ƤȤ
16--17餯ȥȯǡʤŪ2첻 [øy] Ф줬λޤǤͥȤʤäƤ [yː] ֤Ƥ椭ɸŪȯȤʤäƤä
[muːs, hyːs] ߽Фפʤϡ[2012-10-21-1]εǿ줿 chaque mot a son histoire "every word has its own history" ΤդΤǤ롥
ʾ塤Kloeke, G. G (De Hollandsche Expansie. Noorden Zuid-Nederlandsche Dialectbibliotheek 2. The Hague: 1927.) Ĵ⤷ Bloomfield (328--31) ȤƼɮʲϿޤϡBloomfield (328) ꡥ

Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
ˤѸθŪʺۤˤĤƤϡ㤨мεǰäƤ
#1359. ϰѰۤȼҲѰۡ ([2013-01-15-1])
#1481. ʥˤߤҲϰεեԥߥåɡ ([2013-05-17-1])
#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-26-1])
#406. Labov New York City /r/ ([2010-06-07-1])
#1371. New York City ˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-27-1])
#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1])
#1203. ɤˤʩλȤʬμҲ ([2012-08-12-1])
#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1])
ܸǤϳˤκۤΤˤϤߤʤΤǡѸǤκۤˤĤľŪˤˤܸˤⳬ麹Τ¸ߤؿܸ춵ŵ (468) ꡤϢսѤ롥
Ȥʬ٤¸ߤͻˤϡܸƱͤǤäʡ͡Ȥϡص;(1877) ΤʤǡͤˤƻΤȤФˤϤäꤷۤäȤƵҤƤ롥ˡΤ褦ʸѰۤϿʬΰ㤤˵ΤǤꡤΤ褦ʾϡ¾ͤǤƱȤҤ٤Ƥ롥άܸμҲغϡꡤʬ٤ѻߤ줿⡤顦Ȥʤɤˤ뤳ȤФΰ㤤Ȥ¸³Ƥ٤ȡʤߡؤŪǤʤʤäǤϡҲش֤γʺθݤȿǤơܸγؤˤ㤤⡤ʤäƤƤȤ褦νħѤäɽˡʤɤ顤üԤοȤʤɤꤹ뤳ȤϲǽǤ롥
Ķʸص;ȤȤ㤨СָƤפȤΤˡΤϡ֤ߤ줤סΤϡ֤ߤꤤסͤϡ֤ߤƤꤣס̱ϡ֤ߤꤤפǡѰۤȤ
Ʊܸظŵ (176) ѡ
ڳغ۵²θդȽ̱θաȤθդĮͤθդʤɡʬˤäơդ礭ʺۤߤ롥Ρؤ͡٤ϡܻŤƤȤ̼ʤ˷ޤĹޤȬϺؤθդιԤ㤤ΤǤꡤȬϺ٤ˤϡͤ¦ˤʤäˬͤȬϺȸդ˸ǤߤƤ롥γغˤϡĤƥꥹε²ҲǤϥե줬ȤƤȤ褦ʶü⤢롥ͻ塤ͤȼҲθդϡ֤աʲˡפʤɤȸƤФ줿ˤϡפˤäơϰ轻̱θդȤ̤ϰθ줬ԤʤƤ뤳ȤʤäޤȤνѤ롤ʤʸոϡ֤߸ա¸աפʤɤȸƤФ졤̱θդν㲽˹㤨оǯݲʹΡήҲθաפȤˤɸȤäˤ⸫褦ˡ˾ήήήʤɤγغռ뷹ϡʤ궯ĤäƤ롥
ܸǤ⡤ߤΥɤξƱͤˡؤγǤϰˤѰۤؤǤѰۤ礭ԥߥåɹ¤[2013-01-15-1]ε#1359. ϰѰۤȼҲѰۡפοޤ)ʬŪˤεդΥѥʥΤ褦㤬뤳Ȥϡ#1481. ʥˤߤҲϰεեԥߥåɡ ([2013-05-17-1]) ǿ줿ȤǤ롥
ؿܸ춵ŵ١ܸ춵ز ԡ罤۽Ź2005ǯ
ܸظŵ١ ʸۤ ԡ2007ǯ
ޤǤεǤܡ (linguistic item) ȤѸѤƤѰۤ뤢ñ̤ؤνѸȤơHudson (21--22) ˤäƳ줿ΤǤ롥ŪʸѸǤ "lexical items" ñ, "sounds" ȯ, "constructions" ʹʸˤʤɤñ̤̤Ƥ뤬ҲŪѰۤȤǰ㤤Ϥʤñ̤Ǥ졤ؼǤѸ줬ߤȤ櫓Ǥ롥
Ƹܤ嵭3Ĥñ̤˶̤ơ줾ñ̤ˤѰۤļҲŪʵǽͤȤ˺ϤΤĤޤꡤñѰۡȯѰۡʸѰۤȤ٤ȡҲŪˤߤơѰۤμ˰㤤ϤΤ
ͻˤäơܸǤѸǤ⡤ȯѰۤñ乽ʸѰۤȤϰۤʤ밷䤹Ȥ¤ŦƤϰˤĤˤȤ̤ˡäʸˡΰ㤤⡤ȯΰ㤤Ŧ뤳Ȥ¿¤ (accent) ȤƸڤΤǤ롥ѸαƺǤ⡤äˤʸˡˤϤ뤬줾ѼüԤϡޤȯˤäѼǧ롥ʪŪʸݤȤľŪѰۤΥǥåȤߤʤ䤹Ȥ𤬤ꤽǡȯüԤνмҲŪʵǽ¾ñ̤äƤȲꤹ뤳ȤǤ롥ǤϡФƸä乽ʸѰۤϤɤΤ褦ʵǽäƤȲǤ뤫
Hudson (44--45) ϡХ륫Ⱦɤ (linguistic area) ˤơʸˡܤγۤƹäƤʤ顤ʸʤɤʸˡܤϸäȯ٤Ѱ̤ۤʤȤΩƤƤ롥θǤϡäѰۤϼҲŪʺۤɽ魯Τͭ˳ѤƤ롥顤Hudson (45) ϸܤ3Ĥñ̤ˤĤơŪʲ
A very tentative hypothesis thus emerges regarding the different types of linguistic items and their relations to society, according to which syntax is the marker of cohesion in society, with individuals trying to eliminate alternatives in syntax from their individual language. In contrast, vocabulary is a marker of divisions in society, and individuals may actively cultivate alternatives in order to make more subtle social distinctions. Pronunciation reflects the permanent social group with which the speaker identifies.
ķɽ魯ʸɽ魯áǥƥƥɽ魯ȯڤ٤Ȥơ¤˶̣롥
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
ʤˤѼ郎¸ߤΤȤˤĤơ֤ѲĴ뽾ηǥؤΥơȤơȳȻĴȾǥ뤬ƤƤȤϡ#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1]) Ϥᡤwave_theory γƵǼ夲Ƥ
ȾˤСŪʸ (linguistic item) γơϡӤꤲޤ줿ФΤ褦ˡŪȾ˳ȻƤ椯ܤˤä濴ΰ֤ϰۤʤ뤷Ȥζۤʤ뤷³֤ۤʤ뤿ᡤ̤ȤαƶεڤϰϤХХȤʤꡤȤʣ (isogloss) 뤳ȤˤʤΤǤ롥
ܤγȻιȤ뤳ȤǤΤϡޤǤǤ롥ιߤޤϳŪŪǤ뤫⤷ʤܤγȻϤüԡʽġˤѶŪ˺Ѥй³ǤʤлߤޤȤҲŪװ˰¸ʡ#1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1]) #1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) ȡˡޤȻܤϡɬŪʤΤǤɬפϤʤŤ餽ˤäܤȤȻ濴ϤȤƵǽϤȤȤ⤢ꤦΤǤ롥ꤲޤ줿СסֵŪιפȤΤߤǤϡԽʬȤȤˤʤ롥
ǡHudson (41) ϡذƤȤơŪʼҳȻȤ٤Τ
Because of these reservations it seems best to abandon the analogy of the stones dropping in a pool. A more helpful analogy would perhaps be one involving different species of plants sown in a field, each spreading outwards by dispersing its seeds over a particular area. In the analogy, each item would be represented by a different species, with its own rate of seed dispersal, and an isogloss would be represented by the limit of spread of a given species. Different species would be able to coexist on the same spot (a relaxation of the normal laws of botany), but it might be necessary to designate certain species as being in competition with one another, corresponding to items which provide alternative ways of saying the same thing (like the two pronunciations of farm). The advantages of this analogy are that there is no need for the distribution of species in a field to be in constant change with respect to every item, and that every item may be represented in the analogy, and not just those which are innovative.
In terms of this analogy, a linguistic innovation is a new species which has arisen (either by mutation or by being brought in from outside), and which may or may not prosper. If it does, it may spread and replace some or all of its competitors, but if it does not it may either die out or remain confined to a very small area of the field (i.e. to a very small speech community). Whether or not a species thrives depends on how strongly its representatives grow (i.e. on the power and influence of its speech community): the bigger the plants, the more seeds they produce, and the better the chances of the species conquering new territory.
ΥǥϡHudson (48--49) ̤Ƥ롤 "variety-based view of language" Ȥ "item-based view of language" Ȥ礹롥⡤ġθܤ˼ҲŪǧȤ Hudson θѤǻȿǤƤ롥
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
ε#1500 Ϣ³ ([2013-06-05-1]) ǡϢ³ (dialect continuum) ϰ (dialect area) δطŪ˿줿κݤ Heeringa and Nerbonne ˸ڤϷŪʼˡǤȤHeeringa and Nerbonne ϡޥϢ³Τΰʤߤ˱ä27¼оݤ20˹Ԥʤ줿ĴReeks nederlands(ch)e dialectatlassen (RND) comp. Blancquaert and Peé (1925--82)) Υǡ˴Ťơ125ĶùܤβѰۤܤʬϤܤ (dialectometry) Ѱۤ¬ꤹˡȤƤϡ"Levenshtein distance" ѤƤ롥
ʬϤξܺ٤ϳ䰦뤬ȤƤŪʵΥȲѰۤδ֤˶شط뤳Ȥ줿
There is a strong correlation between the phonological distance and the logarithm of geographic distance (.9), accounting for 81% of the variation in pronunciation. (396)
شطȤϤäƤ⡤شطǤϤʤʾ塤٤Ƥ¼ɤƱ褦˥ࡼϢ³Τʤ櫓ǤϤʤ¿ΤǤܤ롥Ĥޤꡤ٤礦2Ĥ¼δ֤ˤ٤䤬ǧ륱ꡤξ硤ξ¦ˤϰۤʤϰ褬äƤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ櫓Ǥ롥
. . . we see that phonological distances can mostly be explained by geographic distance. This justifies the continuum perspective. In those cases where a dialect distance between successive points is significantly higher than would be expected on the basis of geographic distances, we may encounter a dialect border. This justifies the area perspective. (387)
Ϣ³ΤϰȤŪƤʤǰΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤγǰŪʺʬȤƤΤǤ롥κʬ¤ʤΤȤߤϢ³뤷Ū礭ΤȤߤʤϰ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ĤޤȤǤꡤ٤ȤȤʤΤ⤷ʤHeeringa and Nerbonne η⡤Ū꤬Ȥ館Ǥ뤳ȤŦƤ롥
. . . the dialect landscape . . . may be described as a continuum with varying slope or, alternatively, as a continuum with unsharp borders between dialect areas. (399)
Heeringa, Wilbert and John Nerbonne. "Dialect Areas and Dialect Continua." Language Variation and Change 13 (2001): 375--400.
ɤζʤ뤤ϻ˸ɤζˤϡɬΤ˰Ȥϸ¤ʤݡ¿ξ硤¿쾯ʤŪǤ롥#1317. פ ([2012-12-04-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡ isogloss «ʤȤ˶ȤΤŪǤϤ뤬ŪʴϤʤȤäƤ褤
ιԼԤŪϢ³ΤʤA¼Z¼ؤ⤤Ƥ椯ιȡA¼θB¼θȤ϶ϾʺʤB¼C¼C¼D¼ƱͤιԼԤϡơθŪʺۤˤϤۤȤɵդ⤤ƹԤĤZ¼ã롥ȤҴŪA¼Z¼θ٤ȡ餫礭ʺۤΤǤ롥¼¼ؤθ캹ϥǥǤϤʤʥǤꡤιԼԤθΤϢ³ (dialect continuum) ˤۤʤʤϤϢ³Τ¸ߤ뤬衼åѤƤʣϢ³Τ롥ʲϡRomain (12) οޤͤˤƺäϢ³ΤϿޤǤ롥

Ͽޤϡ㤨ХꥢüեΥ졼ޤǡ뤤ϥॹƥफ饦ޤǡϢ³Τι뤳ȤǤȤȤ̣롥
Ϣ³Τϰθ³ϡǼ줿Ȱפ뤳Ȥ⤢аפƤʤȤ⤢롥ϡ٤礦2Ĥ¼Ǥ뤫Ȥäơɬ礭ۤʤѤƤȤ櫓ǤϤʤȤȤƱˡˤäƤƱ٤礦2Ĥ¼Ǥ䤬ȤȤ
Ϣ³Τ˴ؤƤϡŪ꤬롥A, B, C, . . . Z¼Ϣ³ΤƤꤷ硤줾¼Ǥϰͤʸ줬ԤʤƤȹͤƤ褤Τ뤤ϡ¼üüȤǤϥߥϢ³Τ¸ߤƤΤ⤷A¼B¼줾Ū˰ͤȲꤹʤСA¼1Ĥϰ (dialect area) B¼Ϥ⤦1ĤϰȤȤˤʤꡤA¼B¼δ֤ˤϢ³ΤǤϤʤʤ䤬ꤵȤȤˤʤʤϢ³ΤȤǰϰȤǰϤɤΤ褦˴ϢƤΤŪϡChambers and Trudgill ȤơHeeringa and Nerbonne ˤäƼ夲Ƥ롥
Chambers and Trudgill (1998) introduced an interesting puzzle, one that is related to whether dialects should be viewed as organized by areas or via a geographic continuum. They observed that a traveller walking in a straight line notices successive small changes from village to village, but seldom, if ever, observes large differences. This sounds like a justification of the continuum view . . . . (376)
Ϣ³Τ뤫ʤ¸ߤΤȤˤĤƤϡ#1303. ʤ¸ߤΤ --- Ⱦǥˤ ([2012-11-20-1]) ε⻲ȡ
Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.
Heeringa, Wilbert and John Nerbonne. "Dialect Areas and Dialect Continua." Language Variation and Change 13 (2001): 375--400.
Chambers, J. K. and Peter Trudgill. Dialectology. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.
ߤ̤褦̤ʤƤ褦ǻƤʤ줢뤤üԤˤߥߥ˥Haugen "semicommunication" ̾դߤˤ٤̤Ȥ륹ʥӥ̥ޥʰʲϿޤȡˤǰƬ֤Ƥ̾դǤ롥Haugen ϡΥ륦ǥǥޡ3ߤθ٤˴ؤ륢Ĵ»ܤ줾θ˴ؤ semicommunication θ餫ˤ1972ǯΤŤĴʤΤǡη̤2013ǯߤɤ٤ƤϤޤΤζ̤ɬüԤǽ˰¸櫓ǤϤʤȤҲؤΰŪ뤦Dzͤ븦Ǥ롥

ȤǤľܤ˸˴ؤܤФǤϤʤĿͤ˴ؤҲŪʼܤ¿ޤޤƤܺ٤ϳ䰦뤬Haugen (225) οޤѤ3üԤθߤ semicommunication ٹ礤ƤߤޤϡθʹưפǤΤˤϡ֤٤Ǥפȡ־θƤ٤Ǥסˤͤγ礫顥

οޤ͡ʤȤ狼롥ǥޡȥǥδ֤ˤ礭κ롥ǥȥΥ륦δ֤ˤ٤롥Υ륦ȥǥޡδ֤٤ŪԤԤ٤Τۤդ礭
Υ륦ȥǥޡԤˤŪۤˤꡤߤθ˸äζ̹¿ȯ˰ۤʤ뤿ˡ٤⤯ϤʤǥޡͤˤΥ륦٤Ū˹⤤ΤϡΥ륦Τֻۤȯδط̩Ǥ뤿ˡǥޡֻͤͳƼ䤹ΤǤϤʤȤͤ롥
ϡߤθǤ뤫ȤФ "yes", "no", "fairly well" 3Ƥä̡"yes" ͤγǤ롥οޤǤϡ3δ֤٤ꤷΤȤƼƤ롥

Ŀͤ٤ˤϽпϡƤ١ߤιؤˬ٤ʤɤʣ˴ͿƤΤǡ̲ΤΡ褽ηϤĤ̲3ǺǤ⥳ߥ˥ƤΤϡǥޡͤǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
Haugen ϡȯ㤬ߥ˥˳װǤ뤳Ȥǧʤ⡤ߤθФ (linguistic attitude) ⸫ƨȤϤǤʤƤ롥
Even though mutual comprehension is basically a matter of language distance, we cannot entirely discount the effect of mutual social attitudes in reducing or enhancing the will to understand. (227)
ߤθФ빥 (228) dzΤȡǥޡǥͤ0%Υ륦ͤ2%ˤȤɤޤäƤ롥ޤǥޡͤ41%Υ륦졤42%ǥޤפƤ롥ǥޡϼ¾Ȥˡ̲3ΤʤŪ㤯ƤȤ褦ͤǸ¤ꡤΥ륦ȥǥϸߤ˹ޤפäƤ롥Τ褦ʸ٤ˤϡǥޡŪϰ̤Ū㤵ȿǤƤǽ롥
semicommunication ˤϡŪʺۤѤƤΤϤҲŪװǤ٤βٺƤȤ Haugen θ餬ߤ˰ۤʤǤϤʤۤʤȸƤФΤˤϡ٤βٺؤäƤΤǤ롥դˡ٤˲ٺʤСνѼ郎Ǥ褦ˡäդǤϸߤ̤ʤˤ⤫餺ȸƤФΤ⤷ʤ"what" 뤪褽Ʊȯθ줬Υ륦Ǥ hva, ǥǤ vad, ǥޡǤ hvad ֤1906ǯϤ hvad äˤΤФǤȯۤʤäƤƤƱǽɽ蘆Ȥ¤ϡ¤оŪǤ롥
ޥδ֤ semicommunication ȤСűѸüԤȸťΥɸüԤɤΤ餤礨ΤȤϡѸˤνפʴؿǤ롥ǤŪۤǤʤߤˤɤΤ褦ʸ٤äƤȤͿƤ
Haugen, Einar. "Semicommunication: The Language Gap in Scandinavia." The Ecology of Language: Essays by Einar Haugen. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1972. 215--36.
[2013-05-19-1], [2013-06-02-1]ε˰³taboo ˤĤơϡtaboo Ʊ (synonym) δط˾ơθŪʰյͤ롥
̤˸ˤϴƱ¸ߤʤ뤤˵ǤȤ롥ƱȤ1Ĥ signifiant Ф2ġʰʾˤ singifié ӤĤƤ뵭ΤؤؽѸ䵻Ѹʤɤ˸뤳ȤϤ뤬äǤƱϽ;פôȹͤ뤫顤ۤȤ¸ߤʤȤŬäƤ롥
øؤŪˤǤˤơȵΥڥ뤤2ĤοΥڥƱؼоݤؤʤ鶦¸³Ȥ㤬ʤ櫓ǤϤʤˤƸøؤˤʾȤΤϡ¿θȤǻ̩ʺˤΤʤɤͤ뤬⤦1ĹͤΤϡε#1497. taboo ŪȤʤͳ (2) ([2013-06-02-1]) Ǽ夲 Twana ˤߤ褦 taboo νȴطΤǤ롥
Suarez ϡ를 Santa Cruz äƤ Chon ² Tehuelche ˡ۾ʤۤ¿δƱ줬¸ߤȤ¤𤷤ƤEthnologueˤȡƱ² Mapdungun ȸŪƱƤȤθϿ *ˡ"head", "hair", "spoon", "kind of vulture", "gull", "knife", "horse", "dog" ʤɤˡ2İʾδƱ줬¸ߤȤƱǤ뤳ȤˤϡĶdenotation Ụ̄ˡconnotation ʴỤ̄ˡregister ʻѰˤʤɤܺ٤˸Ƥɬפ뤬 Suarez (193) ϤΤεŸƤꡤ餬ƱǤ뤳ȤϼƤ褵Ǥϡʤ Tehuelche ˤϡ̸Ū˵Ȥ븽ݤѻΤ
طʤˤϡ̾νȻԤ̾˴ؤ taboo ν롥Tehuelche ǤϸĿͤˤ̾Ĥ뽬ԤʤƤꡤ㤨äӡפȸƤǡǤ롥̤ͤȡ1ǯ֤ӤΤ̾ȤȤˤ̾ taboo оݤȤʤ롥̾϶Ū˰̣¤̾ϰ̤θΤˤŪɽȤ̣ͭǤ뤫顤ԤθŪѤ뤳ȤǤʤʤ뤤ΤؤǤ롥ظ줬߽Ф뤳Ȥˤʤ롥㤨Сָפ̾ˤĿͤ˴ʤȡָפθϻѶػߤȤʤꡤˡ̤ΡפʤɤɽѤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ӤäƤ⡤ɽ̤Ρפ̣Ȥư³ȤƤ椯ȤȤ⤢䤬ơ̤Ρפ̣ȤưŪѤ褦ˤʤȡϤηʬϡ̣ʬϤʤʤʤꡤľŪ˸ؼȤ夹ĤޤꡤǤϰ̣ѲȤˤʤ롥
Τ褦 taboo νưŤ줿øؤỌ̇̄Ѳ٤Ȥʤָפɽ魯ɽꤹ롥ΤʤǡĤΤΤĹĤꡤƱȤ¸Ȥ롥̾2ĤδƱ줬ȡäʤꡤ connotation 㤨ʤꤷƴƱ֤äΤʸŪװˤä꤬Ȥ櫓㤷 Tehuelche ˤäƤϡϰۤʤ褦
øء̣ѲƱηȷ³ --- θỤ̄ŪѲ¥ʸ֤ȤơTehuelche taboo ϤƸŪƤ롥
Suarez, J. A. "A Case of Absolute Synonyms." International Journal of American Linguistics 37 (1971): 192--95.
#1483. taboo ŪȤʤͳ ([2013-05-19-1]) ˰³ƤꡥƤߡCalifornia Alaska ˤƤϰǤϡ轻̱ˤ Salish äƤEthnologueˤϿ *ˡΤʤˡ亮ȥ the Hood Canal ϰäƤ Twana Ȥ줬롥θʤӾʤڵȤˤж٤γ¾ Salish ϸˤǤϡνʸˤФи褦ˡԤ̾˴ؤƤ taboo 롥Twana ο̾ˤϡ̤̾̾̾뤬taboo ŬѤΤ̾ΤߤǤ롥̾ϻ礬̤ taboo Ȥʤꡤ²̤ΰ̾ѤޤǸϤ³롥
ȤTwana ˤϻԤ̾ taboo ȴϢơ⤦1Ĥ2Ū taboo 롥Ȥ櫓Ԥʬι⤤ȷϤμԤǤȤ²ϡ̾ȲṲ̄θλѤش뤳Ȥ뵡ĤΤϡθ夷Ф餯äˡ¼ͤƤαη롥εǤϡ£ʪϤʤɤȡtaboo Ȥʤ٤줬ȯɽ졤ظ줬ƤΤǤ롥
2Ū taboo ϡ˾줿ҤŬѤۤԤ²μҲŪϰ̤˱ơ˹ƱΤعǽ롥 Salish ϸŪ˸ߤԶѼǤꡤڤ줷ӤӤƤȤ뤬 taboo ˴ŤøؤۤʤϰϤŬѤ뤫ǤϤʤȤͤƤ롥
1ĵȡ1860ǯޤ줿 Twana üԤˤСxa'twas Ȥ̾塤 xa'txat (mallard duck) taboo ȤʤꡤظȤ hɔ'hɔbšəd (red foot) Ѥ褦ˤʤäȤθøؤϤܴۤǤꡤ1940ǯˤϤȤȤ xa'txat ϤۤȤɤüԤ˺ƤȤʤǡ[2012-12-25-1]ε#1338. ֡εפ㼨¤ taboo ȤϰۤʤˡظϾҤ "red foot" Τ褦ʣˤ뵭ŪɽȤʤ뤳Ȥ¿Twana ˤϰ̾ʣǤʬϤǤΤʤʤȤ顤̾ taboo Ȥȼˤ夷ΤǤǽ⤤
Twana taboo ΤĸŪʰյϡ[2013-05-19-1]ǤҤ٤褦ˡøؤȼȤ줬Ƴ졤Ť˺롥ΤȤϡSwadesh Ƥ#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) μˡ礭ʵꤲ롥Swadesh ϡĹ֤Ǹȸøؤϰ®٤ǵȤȤȤƤ뤬Twana Τ褦˸øؤʸ֤ȤƵǽƤˤϡΩʤϤǤ롥ºݡSwadesh Ϻڤ Salish θäǯؤμˡʬϤǽФ줿֤ʬǯ˻֤̤ꤹƤǽ⤤Twana Τ褦ä taboo ʸϳΤ˵ˤ®٤θøؤȤ˵٤ͳˤϤʤ롥
ʾ塤Elmendorf ȤƼɮ
Elmendorf, W. W. "Word Taboo and Lexical Change in Coast Salish." International Journal of American Linguistics 17 (1951): 205--08.
#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1]) ȡ#1364. ʤϸŪݼŪʤΤ ([2013-01-20-1]) ǰä³ԡźΤۤɸ뤳ȤdzǧƤHudson (195) Ǥϡ "The Sex/Prestige Pattern" ȤŪʲȤƾҲ𤷤Ƥ롥
The Sex/Prestige Pattern
In any society where males and females have equal access to the standard form, females use standard variants of any stable variable which is socially stratified for both sexes more often than males do. (Hudson 195)
ʤΤ褦ʥѥŪʤΤȤˤĤƤϡ[2013-01-20-1]ε Trudgill 2ĤҲ𤷤Hudson (195--99) 3ĤƤ롥
(1) ҲŪϰ̤Ƥɸָ⡥ŵŪϼҲ˽ФơҲΤλŻˤäϰ̤롥ǡˤϡȰۤʤꡤҲΤλŻˤäϰ̤뵡ʤǡϡϰ̤ΤȷӤĤɸŪʸոѶŪ˳뤳ȤǡҲϰ̤νǤ褦ȤΤǤϤʤ
(2) ּ夤嫤ǷФ줿 ("weakly tied") ͥåȥ⡥ͥåȥˤС夤嫤ǷФ줿춦ƱΤ䤽ιϡ깭춦ƱΤεϡʤɸŪѼ˽䤹ȿФˡ嫤ǷФ줿춦ƱΤ䤽ιϡʵϤ˽䤹ŵŪϻŻʤɤ̤ƶ嫤ζƱΤؤε°ռϵդ˼夤嫤ζƱΤؤε°ռäơ°ͥåȥζ٤Ȥ顤ɸŪʵϤؤȷΤǤϤʤ
(3) vs ⡥ϸŪˤˤ餷 ("masculinity" or "toughness") Ȥ Trudgill (1) Ȼ¾ƱΤǤ롥 (roughness) ˷ΤФơ (sophistication) ȤΡȽθ캹θϡϻŻȷӤĤϫƯԳȥۥ磻ȥ顼ȷӤĤήθ캹θϢưƤ뤳Ȥθ餫ˤƤ롥ȡ˽ȤΤߤǶ̤Ť⡤ϫƯԳ顦ȤפȽή顦ȤפȤΩ뼴Ƕ̤ۤˤʤäƤϤޤ
Hudson ϡ(2), (3) ˤĤƤϲǽǧƤ뤬(1) ˤĤƤŪʸƤ롥1ˡ(1) ϤäȤɸŪʷ֤ѤüԤǤ뤳ȤˤƤ뤬ºݤˤϽǤɸŪʷ֤ѤȤ롥2ˡTrudgill ˤ Norwich θĴǤϡΤۤ⼫θոºݤɸŪǤȲᾮɾ뷹뤳Ȥ줿ΤȤϡ(1) ˴ްդ롤˽Ȥϰ̤뷹ȤƤʤ3ˡ(1) ϡLabov θˤäƷŤ줿㤤ѲȤ¤礷ʤ
˽ϡܲҲؤǤȤ櫓ܤӤƤȥԥåǤ롥θοŸˤꡤ⤬뤫⤷ʤ
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
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