01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
#1332. ѸȶѸֻηϤܼŪʺ ([2012-12-19-1])#1386. Ѹʹߤ˳ΩƤɸֻηϤħ ([2013-02-11-1])#1829. եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])#1940. 16ֻԤη ([2014-08-19-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡḽѸֻηϤϤ֤ɽŪ (logographic) Ǥ롥ɽʸɸ֤륢ե٥åȤѤƤʾ塤ɽŪȤȤϤꤨʤΩѸΤɽŪֻηϤӤСɽŪʤƤȤȤϤǤ롥
ɽָŪȽҤ٤ƤΤˤɽַǡŪ ("morphographic"?) ɽ٤1ĤηǤˤޤäʸƤδطĤǤɤǤݻȤΤɽַǡܼǤ롥ϡʸˡȤǷ椹ԤˤȤäƤϤ꤬ŪŪʴ̤˻ѤƤŪˡֻȤ褽פ뤫
Carney (18) ϡѸֻɽַǡˤĤơ첻ȻҲ줾ʤŪΤͿƤ롥
2.4 LEXICAL SPELLING
Keeping the spelling of a morpheme constant
The English writing system is not simply concerned with mapping phonemes on to letters. To a large extent it tries to offer the reader a constant spelling for a morpheme in spite of the varying pronunciation of the morpheme in different contexts. Children are taught both a long and a short phonemic value for the simple vowel letters. In spite of the very considerable present-day phonetic differences in pronunciation, the pairs /eɪ/ -- /æ/ (sane, sanity), /aɪ/ -- /ɪ/ (mime, mimic), /əʊ/ -- /ɒ/ (cone, conical, /iː/ -- /e/ (diabetes, diabetic) have a constant vowel letter. Only in the pair /aʊ/ -- /ʌ/ (pronounce, pronunciation) do the vowel letters used in the spelling (<ou> -- <u>) sometimes vary to reflect the surface difference. But even here there are long-short differences such as South, Southern where the morpheme keeps its spelling identity. Similarly the different correspondences /s/ <c>, /k/ <c>, and /ʃ/ <c> allow a constant morphemic spelling in words such as electricity, electrical, electrician. The past tense and participle morpheme {-ed} in regular verbs (ignoring forms such as spelt, spent, dreamt) has a constant <-ed> spelling in spite of the phonemic variation /ɪd/ (waited), /d/ (warned) and /t/ (watched).
ΰѤܤΤϡ<pronounce> <pronunciation> ɽַǡ㳰ȤƵƤ뤳ȤȤdzʤư̾ΥڥˤƤ첻ۤʤäƤΤȤƤŪĴ٤ƤߤͤϤ Carney ˴Ť뤳ȤǤ<south> /saʊθ/ <southern> /sʌðən/ Ǥϡ첻ϰۤʤ뤬ƱǤֻɽ綠Ȥɽַǡθ§ˤꡤ̤ <ou> ֤롥줬ѸֻΤȤƤˤǤ롥/aʊ/ /ʌ/ θؤ˴ؤƤϡ㳰ŪɽѤ <pronounce> vs <pronunciation> Τ褦ʤΤ롥Carney ϤΥڥͣΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ뤬<denounce> vs <denunciation>, <renounce> vs <renunciation>, <abound> vs <abundance>, <redound> vs <redundancy> Τ褦⤢롥
Τ褦ʼ䤬ФȤȤϡ<pronounce> vs <pronunciation> ˼ɽѸֻȤƤ㳰ȤľȤȤդˤС<south> vs <southern> μɽΤۤ§ȤľƯƤΤ
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
#1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1])ޤ¾εǡŵŪŷϩȤŪ¦̤˸ڤƤ濴ŪϰϤФгŪϰǤ⤢ꡤϤȾŤƤȤޤ뤿ˤˤη̡濴ϿդϸŤȤʬۤ˻롥ߤ˱Υ줿֤ĤȤݤϡ츫ԻĤˤ꤭줤Ĥ
ʾ夬ŵŪषޤäդ濴ŤդȤʬۤ㤬롥ܸΥʬۤܤǤ͡ʥȤԤƤꡤ弰ȡȡü쥢ȡ췿ȡ̵Ȥ̤롥̣ȤˡΥȤʣʬۤϤ褽ؤƤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥㤨2̾4Ĥη̤Ǥʣʵ弰Ȥϡ̾Ȥꡤ濴ȤƶᵦȾΦˤޤʬۤƤ롥γ¦ˤ2̾3Ĥη̤뼡ʣȤʬۤ롥ޤߤ顤ϡʸǽҤ٤̵ϰϽ̤̳ƻޤdzȤäƤꡤ϶ᵦӱۤȶ彣ˤޤʬۤƤ롥ĤޤꡤȤϡᵦʬǤƤʬܽʬۤƤ롥
³2̾2Ĥη̤ü쥢Ȥϡ彣ϤȤƤ鷺ʬۤˤȤɤޤ롥1Ĥη⤿ʤ췿ȤϡǼ縩ԾˤΤǧ롥Ǹ˷̤ʤ̵Ȥϡ븩ڸʡ縩ƶ彣ιϰʬۤƤ롥Τ褦˸ߤ˱Υ줿Ȥߤ뤳Ȥϡ۵롥
ŵŪۤʤΤϡŪˤϤŤ奢Ȥܽ˻ĤäƤꡤ꿷Ȥ¾ŸƤ뤳Ȥޤʿ»εǤ2̾5Ĥη̤ƤȤΤƤ롥ȡʿ»εΥȤΤʣˤƺǤ褯ݤäƤΤ弰Ȥǡ缡ñ㲽줿ȤȾʬۤƤȲǤ롥濴ʣǸŤդñǿȤǤ뤬μĥȤϤषդǤ롥ܤʬ䤹Ҳ𤷤ɧ (77) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ؤˤʸŪǤϡ褯졤ȤФդ뤤⤿䤹äΤǤγ¦ؤˤʤȤ줬ޤꡤ˳ؤǤϤäȼޤޤᵦ濴˱ߤ褦ˤơ濴Ȥη¦ƤΤϡΤǤϡŪѲΤ褦ΤǤ
ߤϤʹơäסʸȯǿ줬ޤƤҤꡤˤϤդ뤤줬ΤɤȤΤȿФȡפ⤷ޤιͤñΤҤˤ褯ƤϤޤޤ
Ǥ⡤Ȥ濴ˤƹͤ줿㤯ϡ֥ȤʤɤΤդĤʷĤΤΤۤѲ䤹פȤȤФΤ⤦ҤȤĤѲλäƤޤ
¤ŪŪñʸʣʥȤϡѲŤλ˴ؤơ̤˰ɬפȤȤ¤ŪʣѲ®٤Ȥδ֤˲餫δϢ뤫⤷ʤȤ붽̣ݤ⤷ʤƱˡΰѤˤ⤢褦ˡϤ䶵ȤҲŪϤѤƤȤͤ롥
ʤǤʬ̵ۤȤǿȤȤǤСϺܸ쥢ȤλѤͽΤǤȤǤ롥¡ɧ (75) ϡ־ܸϤȤˤʤ뤫⤷ޤ㡤ʤǤ礦פȳοŪǤ롥 *
ɧ 롡ϤޤۤΤȤС١ꥹۡ1997ǯ
˸ǤϡμήɸؤϼŪȤߤʤ褦꤬ɽΩġɸ (discourse marker) (interjection) (insert) ȸƤФ⡤ǯˤ狼˵ӸӤ褦ˤʤäѸ˸Ǥ⡤well please um 褦䤯ޤȤ˰褦ˤʤä
θˤ͡ʬλꡤ줷ƾΤʤᤷ˻ͽǻȤƤѸƤߤȡ"discourse marker" "interjection" Τۤˤ "discourse particle", "mystery particle", "implicit anchoring device" ʤ͡Ǥ (Jucker and Taavitsainen 55) θηϲ褦ȤߤΰĤ Jucker and Taavitsainen (56) ˤ "Inserts and pragmatic noise" οޤ롥ԹǾѤΤʲ˼

οޤˤ "Inserts", "Pragmatic noise", "Discourse markers", "Primary interjections", "Secondary interjections", "Words", "Vocalisations" ʤɤѸ줬ФƤꡤ줾ζܤۣ˼Ƥ뤬 Jucker and Taavitsainen θŪʽǽץȥŪˤߤƤ뤫Ǥ롥
ޤޤ礭ʬ롥ޤΤ褽¦ Inserts ϡ¾ʻεǽͭƤΤ¿¼Ūʰ̣ƤͭƤ롥Ф뱦¦ Pragmatic noise ϡ¾ʻεǽ⤿¼Ūʰ̣ǡäѤŪпŪòȤ롥ơ¦ Inserts ǤץȥŪ Inserts Ǥ뺸ü Discourse markers ȡŪʱ Interjections ʬ롥 Interjections ⡤ƱȤ¾ʻˤⶡ뤫ݤˤä Secondary interjections Primary interjections ʬ롥ΤȤƺؤΥǡνΤɽƤΤ狼ʤüˤ Ha ha he he ʤɤ Vocalisations Ȥ褦Τʤθꤵ줿ɽߤ롥
interjections 3ʬƤYuk! ouch! ʤɤδŪ (emotive) ʤΡaha!, Oh!, Well! ʤɤǧŪ (cognitive) ʤΤϹ碌ɽŪ (expressive) ʴȸƤФ롥ˡʹ˶Ưؼꡤդ¥ꡤưǽŪ (conative) ʴȤ shh!, eh?, hey!, ho!, Look! 롥Ǹ˸Ū (phatic) ʴȤơŤǤĤ mhm!, uh-huh! ʤɤ̤ (Jucker and Taavitsainen 57--58)
ϸѸˤʬǤϤ뤬Ѹ˸ˤ⤪褽ΤޤƤϤޤŪʶʬ
Jucker, Andreas H. and Irma Taavitsainen. English Historical Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.
#2034. Ⱦʤ ([2014-11-21-1]) ڤӡ#2037. Ťȸ֡ ([2014-11-24-1]) ˤ褦ˡϡ¾ʸŪƱͤˡ֤˱äŤ뤳Ȥ¿äϥƥӤ䥤ͥåȤʤɳƼΥǥȯãʪŪʾ㳲Ȥ⤿䤹ӱۤƤޤǤʪŪʸ̤ʸŪŤδäˤä
ǻϤޤä䡤˸ꤵƤ֤˱äŤϡܤˤߤ롥ޤǤܤʪήδϡΦγƻǤϤʤ賤ιϩǤ롥ͽδǯ (1624--44) ˲¼ (1618--99) ˤܽϩȡܽαߤˤ˽褦ˤʤä塤ⳤܳߡĤϩȡ͡ʿδߡܳߡĤϩȡ塤ʿδߡͤϩääܳߤ褷ϩγ褯ΤƤ롥ϺϡġܸšĸҤʤɤ˴ιĮ˾ʪʡʸ澮ιĮΦӱۤơΥ줿礭ʹĮ˾뤳ȤȤʤäΤǤ롥 *
СϩפäϤˤϵηɾΡ?Ϥסʶ̸Ρ?פˤԤƤֹۤԤʤפΰդζᵦ֤㤻ס֤Ȥפΰդ֤ʤס֤ɡפΰդζ彣֤ФäƤפʤɤʹʰ塤p. 44ˡޤܸŤʤɴ긩αոĸҤǤϡ֤꤬Ȥפΰ̣ǤΡ֤ˡפʹ롥ۤĸǤϡּѤפȤ֤פɽ뤬äΤǤ롥ϤˤΤ褦ԤƤϰ褬ʤΩʬۤƤ뤿ᡤβϩȤ֤˱äƤиݤȲ᤹ۤʤޤȬΡ֤פϸŤԤǡĬ˾äή夤ȸƤꡤ̣Ǹ֤˱äŤȤäƤ褤ʰ塤pp. 8--9ˡ
γäθ˵ΦŴƻ֤ȯãǿषƤäȤȤŤΥ롼ȤѤäƤäΤȻפ롥
ͺʴƽˡϿޡ١ե졼٥ۡ2009ǯ
͡θդ˴ؤ¯äत˺طϤγŪʼȤǤϡĤҤȤIJۤƤȤȤʤ롥ؤγˤ⡤Τ褦ʼݤΤΤʤʤ㤨СɤʪȤƤġ䥰ѸǤ Bauer and Trudgill ɤߤ䤹䥰3) ˤȡȯüԤθФ٤ˤ3बǧȤ
ФȯüԤ٤ϡ3ĤʬǤ롥
1) Ū١ȤλߤˤĤʤΤǡȤʸˡŪȼΰפȤñ¸εȤˤĤơäߤ롥
2) شŪ١줳θñ㤵ʤɤФȽǤηǼ롥
3) صŪ١ɤʷˤΡѡפˤϤ٤ȿФȤǼ롥
äüԤȸδط͡Τ餫ˤƤ롤ǰΥܽǤ줫餪褦ȤΤǤ롥
ѤʳǰФʳȤ̾ΤȤз褷Ƥ⡤̤ϤʤüԤïǤ⡤ɤϼʬθۤยäƤΤǤ롥
ؼԤǤ䤫鸫ȡΤ褦ʡּȯŪءפϡ˸иñ㲽ɵʤɤǥŪʴꡤ¾Ԥ˸ꡤοͼﺹ̤Ϳꡤȿؼ˸줷ꤹ˸¤ꡤ魯٤ΤǤ롥
¤ϡؼԤϡ§Ȥƾ3٤ΤǤʤ١صŪ١ѤƤ롥Ф뵭Ū٤ϡ3ĤȤ֤ΤǤꡤष3Ĥ٤뤢¯ä褦Ȥ뷹롥¯äˤϤμҲŪɾ˴ؤΤʤʤᡤȤ櫓ҲؼԤϵҼŪΩ줫餽褦ȤֵŪפϡֵҴŪפްդ褦ˤߤΤΡºݤˤϡʼҲ˸ؼԤȤɤĤθѼԤǤꡤ˵ҴŪʵݤ뤳ȤĤƤʤȥߥ꤬ߥˤʤäƤޤǽˤΤ
䥰ξΰѤˤϴ롥ʤۤŪ˸ؼԤƻԤȤƤΩϤ뤫⤷ʤѼԤΰͤҤȤˡָۤยפȤΤϡΤˤǤ롥ξǸؼԤռŪ夲٤ϡ֥ǥŪʴꡤ¾Ԥ˸ꡤοͼﺹ̤Ϳꡤȿؼ˸줷ꤹ˸¡פäƤǤȡ䥰ϼĥ롥
Ǥ롥Ρ־פ꤬ä˥ǥ¾ԤȿؼȤΤϡ켫Τ¿ʬ˻ŪʿǰǤꡤ줬ȤƤ뤫ݤȽǤޤŪʤΤǤ롥ֲγءפȤƤμҲؤ뤢ҲؼԤΤΩ夬硤ˤäƤϡμҲؼԤˤȤäƤˤʤΤǤϤʤȵ褦̯ʥ뤫⤷ʤ¾μҲؼԤԤȽǤ "interventionist" ȹꤤäưŪʼҲؼԤϼ̤뤤ɾ뤫⤷ʤ
䥰ϸؼԤˤ뤤иŪʲ⤤ƤΤŪȤ϶ŪˤɤɤޤǤΤȤʤΤΤˤʤʾ塤Τ뤤ϤʤȤ꤬֤ƤޤΤǤϤʤϡʼҲ˸ءʼԡˤ¿쾯ʤŪʤΤȤʤ餶ʤΤȹͤƤ롥켫Τɤ뤤ϰȤȤǤϤʤ줬ܼȤƼҲŪʤΤǤʾ塤ɬŪˤʤ餶ʤȹͤƤ롥
ϢȤơ#1381. "interventionist" sociolinguistics ([2013-02-06-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Ƿؿ֤ȤСפβݳȡ١ҡ2012ǯ
ζǷؤϤƤθء١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2004ǯ
ޥʡ䥰ˡƣ ݻҡˡشְ㤤餱θи١ǥե1994ǯ
Bauer, Laurie and Peter Trudgill, eds. Language Myths. London: Penguin, 1998.
#2007. Gramley αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-10-25-1]) ³Ѹ˳ܼơѸ (a history of English) ʬפȤ2ơFennell (2001) ϡܥ֥Ǥ⤿ӤӻȤƤѸ˳Ǥꡤ˼ҲŪʥץħ롥ɾɤȡ"A Sociolinguistic Approach" ȤγˤϡȤ櫓ŤˤҲŪʰϼ夯ηŪǤʤȤǡǸ3ϡѸʹߤγƾϤǤϼҲŪƶäƤꡤɤͤȤɾ롥⤪褽ɾƱդ롥ƶɤ뤫Ȥɬ¿Ϥʤ⤷ʤλˤĤƤҲŪ˶̣ĤƤꡤҲŪ˱ѸˤįȤɤʤ뤫ȤߤȤƤϤ褤ΤǤϤʤȹŪ˸Ƥ롥ҲشȤϤŪʹ¤ŪʵҤ¿Τǡ¾ɾΤѸ˳1, 2ɤɤΤŬΤǤϤʤΡɤγĤǤ Flash ɤ
1 Introduction
1.1 The Time Periods of English
1.2 Language Change
1.3 Sources of Information on Language Change
1.4 Linguistic Preliminaries
1.5 The Sounds of English, and Symbols Used to Describe Them
1.5.1 Consonants
1.5.2 Vowels
1.5.2.1 Monophthongs
1.5.2.2 Diphthongs
1.6 Structure of the Book
2 The Pre-history of English
Timeline: The Indo-European Period
2.1 The Indo-European Languages and Linguistic Relatedness
2.1.1 The Beginnings
2.1.2 The Development of Historical Linguistics
2.1.3 Genetic Relatedness
2.2 Linguistic Developments: The Indo-European Language Family
2.2.1 Family-Tree Relationships
2.2.2 The Indo-European Family
2.2.2.1 Indo-Iranian
2.2.2.2 Armenian
2.2.2.3 Albanian
2.2.2.4 Balto-Slavonic
2.2.2.5 Hellenic
2.2.2.6 Italic
2.2.2.7 Celtic
2.2.2.8 Germanic
2.3 From Indo-European to Germanic
2.3.1 Prosody
2.3.2 The Consonant System: Sound Shifts
2.3.2.1 Grimm's Law
2.3.2.2 Verner's Law
2.3.2.3 The Second Consonant Shift
2.3.3 The Vowel System
2.3.4 Morphology
2.3.5 Syntax
2.3.6 Lexicon
2.3.7 Semantics
2.3.8 Indo-European/Germanic Texts
2.3.9 Neogrammarians, Structuralists and Contemporary Linguistic Models
2.4 Typological Classification
2.4.1 Universals
2.4.1.1 Syntactic Universals
2.4.2 Morphological Typology
2.5 Sociolinguistic Focus. The Indo-European Tribes and the Spread of Language. Language Contact and Language Change. Archaeological Linguistics
2.5.1 Language Contact
2.5.2 Archaeological Linguistics
2.6 Conclusion
3 Old English
Timeline: The Old English Period
3.1 Social and Political History
3.1.1 Britain before the English
3.1.2 The Anglo-Saxon Invasions
3.1.3 Anglo-Saxon Influence
3.1.4 Scandinavian Influence
3.2 Linguistic Developments: The Sounds, Structure and Typology of Old English
3.2.1 The Structure of Old English
3.2.1.1 OE Consonants
3.2.1.2 Vowels: from Germanic to Old English
3.2.1.3 Old English Gender
3.2.1.4 Inflection in Old English
3.2.1.5 Old English Syntax
3.2.1.6 Old English Vocabulary
3.3 Linguistic and Literary Achievements
3.3.1 Texts
3.3.1.1 Prose
3.3.1.2 Poetry
3.4 The Dialects of Old English
3.5 Sociolinguistic Focus
3.5.1 Language Contact
3.5.1.1 Latin and Celtic
3.5.1.2 The Scandinavians
4 Middle English
Timeline: The Middle English Period
4.1 Social and Political History
4.1.1 Political History: The Norman Conquest to Edward I
4.1.2 Social History
4.1.2.1 The Establishment of Towns and Burghs and the Beginnings of Social Stratification
4.2 Linguistic Developments: Middle English Sounds and Structure, with Particular Emphasis on the Breakdown of the Inflectional System and its Linguistic Typological Implications
4.2.1 Major Changes in the Sound System
4.2.1.1 The Consonants
4.2.1.2 Consonant Changes from Old to Middle English
4.2.1.3 Vowels in Stressed Syllables
4.2.1.4 Vowels in Unstressed Syllables
4.2.1.5 Lengthening and Shortening
4.2.1.6 Summary Table of Vowel Changes from Old to Middle English
4.2.1.7 The Formation of Middle English Diphthongs
4.2.2 Major Morphological Changes from Old to Middle English
4.2.2.1 Loss of Inflections
4.2.2.2 Other Changes in the Morphological System
4.2.2.3 Verbs
4.2.3 Middle English Syntax
4.2.3.1 Word Order
4.2.4 The Lexicon: Loan Words from French
4.2.4.1 Numbers and Parts of the Body
4.2.4.2 Two French Sources
4.3 Middle English Dialects
4.3.1 Linguistic and Literary Achievements
4.3.1.1 Middle English Literature
4.3.2 Language
4.3.3 Genre
4.4 Sociolinguistic Focus: Social Stratification, Multilingualism and Dialect Variation. Language Contact: The Myth of Middle English Creolization
4.4.1 English Re-established
4.4.1.1 Language and the Rise of the Middle Class
4.4.2 The Development of Standard English
4.4.2.1 The Evolution of ME 'Standard' English
4.4.3 Middle English Creolization: Myth?
4.4.3.1 Definitions
4.4.3.2 Pidgins and Creoles in England?
4.5 Conclusion
5 Early Modern English
Timeline: The Early Modern English Period
5.1 Social and Political History
5.1.1 Historical and Political Background
5.1.1.1 Internal Instability and colonial Expansion
5.2 Linguistic Developments: The Variable Character of Early Modern English
5.2.1 Phonology
5.2.1.1 Consonants
5.2.1.2 Vowels
5.2.1.3 The Great Vowel Shift
5.2.2 Morphology
5.2.2.1 Nouns
5.2.2.2 Pronouns
5.2.2.3 Adjectives and Adverbs
5.2.2.4 Verbs
5.2.2.5 The Spread of Northern Forms
5.2.3 Syntax
5.2.3.1 Periphrastic do
5.2.3.2 Progressive Verb Forms
5.2.3.3 Passives
5.2.4 Sample Text
5.2.5 Vocabulary
5.2.6 The Anxious State of English: The Search for Authority
5.2.6.1 Dictionaries and the Question of Linguistic Authority: Swift's and Johnson's View of Language
5.3 Linguistic and Literary Achievement
5.4 Sociolinguistic Focus
5.4.1 Variation in Early Modern English
5.4.2 Standardization
5.4.2.1 The Printing Press
5.4.2.2 The Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation
5.4.2.3 English Established
5.4.3 The Great Vowel Shift
5.4.3.1 Phonological Change
5.4.4 Case Study: Power and Solidarity Relations in Early Modern English
5.5 Conclusion
6 Present-Day English
Timeline: Present-Day English
Introduction
6.1 Social and Political History
6.1.1 The Age of Revolutions, Wars and Imperialism
6.1.2 Urbanization, Industrialization and Social Stratification
6.2 Linguistic Developments
6.2.1 Morphology and Syntax
6.2.1.1 Morphology
6.2.1.2 Syntax
6.2.2 The Lexicon
6.2.2.1 Colonialism, Contact and Borrowings
6.2.2.2 Neologisms
6.2.2.3 Illustrative Texts
6.3 Modern English Dialects
6.3.1 Traditional Dialects
6.3.2 Modern Dialects
6.3.3 Received Pronunciation (RP): The Social Background
6.3.3.1 Characteristics of RP
6.3.4 RP, Estuary English and 'the Queen's English'
6.4 Sociolinguistic Focus: English in Scotland, Ireland and Wales --- Multilingualism in Britain
6.4.1 English in the British Isles
6.4.1.1 English in Scotland
6.4.1.2 English in Wales
6.4.1.3 English in Ireland
6.4.2 Immigrant Varieties of English in Britain
6.4.2.1 Immigration to Britain in the PDE Period
6.4.2.2 Colonial Immigration and Language
7 English in the United States
Timeline: America in the Modern Period
7.1 Social and Political History
7.1.1 Settlement and Language
7.1.2 Settlement by Region
7.1.2.1 The Original Thirteen Colonies
7.1.2.2 The Middle West
7.1.2.3 The South and West
7.2 The Development of American English
7.2.1 The Strength and maintenance of Dialect Boundaries
7.2.2 How, Why and When American English Began to Diverge from British English
7.2.2.1 Physical Separation
7.2.2.2 The Different Physical Conditions Encountered by the Settlers
7.2.2.3 Contact with Immigrant Non-Native Speakers of English
7.2.2.4 Developing Political Differences and the Growing American Sense of National Identity
7.3 Language Variation in the United States
7.3.1 Uniformity and Diversity in Early American English
7.3.2 Regional Dialect Divisions in American English
7.3.2.1 The Lexicon
7.3.2.2 Phonology: Consonants
7.3.2.3 Phonology: Vowels
7.3.3 Social and Ethnic Dialects
7.3.3.1 Social Class and Language Change
7.3.3.2 Ethnicity
7.3.3.3 African-American Vernacular English
7.3.3.4 Traditional Dialects and the Resistance to Change
8 World-Wide English
Timeline: World-Wide English
8.1 Social and Political History: The Spread of English across the Globe
8.1.1 British Colonialism
8.1.1.1 Canada
8.1.1.2 The Caribbean
8.1.1.3 Australia
8.1.1.4 New Zealand
8.1.1.5 South Africa
8.1.1.6 South Asia
8.1.1.7 Former Colonial Africa: West Africa
8.1.1.8 East Africa
8.1.1.9 South-East Asia and South Pacific
8.1.2 An Overview of the Use of English throughout the World
8.2 English as a Global language
8.2.1 The Industrial Revolution
8.2.2 American Economic Superiority and Political Leadership
8.2.3 American Technological Domination
8.2.4 The Boom in English language Teaching
8.2.5 The Need for a Global Language
8.2.6 Structural Considerations
8.2.7 Global and at the Same Time Local
8.3 English as a Killer Language
8.3.1 Language Death
8.3.2 Language and Communication Technology
8.4 The Future of English
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
#2034. Ⱦʤ ([2014-11-21-1]) ǡԻԤԻԤؤθŤ˿줿̤̤ȯãμҲǤϡ͡ιưȾ¤礭ʤư϶٤ϰ˸¤롥ξˤϡŤͼϡȾ (wave_theory) ͽۤȤˤʤ̤ȯãҲǤϡ㤨ƻϩ֤Ŵƻ֤˱褦ʤɤơߤ˱Υ줿ԻԤԻԤؤФΤ褦ŤΤ褦Ⱦϸߤ̷⤹ΤǤϤʤषμҲθ̤ȯã٤ѿȤ롤ŪؤȻȤǤ褦˻פ롥
Ťȸ֤ȤϢưƤ뤫Τˤϡǡ֤Фפɽ魯ɸ manger trough ִƤʬۤįΤ褤Survey of English Dialects ΤĴʤƤ20ȾФˤϡϰǤ trough ԤƤ̤ɸ manger ¤˿ƩĤĤäοηϩܤߤƤߤȡɥرӤ봴ƻϩŴƻ֤ˤԤäȱ褤ʤ鿻ƩƤ뤳Ȥ狼äΤǤ롥̤Ȥơ֤˱äϰǤϿ manger դ֤鳰줿ϰǤϸŷ trough ³ƤȤ줿ʲTrudgill (130--31) ꡤϿޤȸϿޤξϿޤ˽Ťʤ뤫ˤϡGIF˥ɤ

It can be seen that each of the three southward-encroaching prongs of the manger area, two of which actually reach the coast, coincide with the main London to Dover road and rail route, the main London to Brighton route, and the main route from London to Portsmouth. The spread of the incoming form is clearly accelerated in areas with good communications links, and is retarded in more isolated areas. (Trudgill 132)
˸¤餺Τˤ襦륹ˤˤ衤Τ֤˱äơŪˤϥߥ˥ͥåȥ˱äưưŤ롥ͤƤߤΤȤɤˤ֤ФפΤ褦ϿޤǼȡΤȤŪǤǼǤ롥ؤ˥ʥߥåǤ뤫̣碌Ƥ빥#1543. ء ([2013-07-18-1]) ʬθȤƤɾǤ롥
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
ȤС#1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1]) Ǥߤפ㤬褯ΤƤ롥ۤˤ⡤֤Ȥܡ١ˡפؤŤʡ礫ˤƤȵܺȤΥ줿ϰʬۤ㡤פ̣ȥ¸줬Ϥ̤ȶ彣ΩʬۤʤɤΤƤ롥衼åѤ albus ͳ褹ŷդ˻¸Ƥ⡤#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1]) ǤߤǤϡѸˤȤơ
1Ĥϡ#452. ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) ϿޤǤ롥r æȤȯسȤäƤ롥ߤεڤǤʤʤɤμŪϰǤϡr ݻŷ¸Ƥ롥Τ褦ŵǤϡ֤ߤ˱Υ줿 (relic area) ˸롥
Upton and Widdowson ΥϿޤѥѥįƤơ⤦1ŵŪĤ뤳ȤǤʲϡUpton and Widdowson (140) ˷ǺܤƤ֡ʥ亮ΡˤФפ̣ beak ʬۤǤ롥

ɸǤ beak ɤȾʤäƤ뤬ն bill ξ礬١ʬۤƤ롥ۤɸߤΥ줿ϰΩ bill ȯȤϹͤˤΤǡˡĤڤʤäƤ bill ŪΤ beak ˵ͤ졤ƤοȤ줿褬նʬۤƤΤȲ᤹롥3 neb ⤢٤ʬۤƤꡤ㴳ʣ褹롥
beak ϸťե bec μѸ13ȾФäƤŪǤ롥bill ϸűѸ bile ̤ǡεϸŤneb Ʊͤ˸űѸ neb(b) ̤Ǥ롥ߤϥΤۤåȥɤˤȤƻѤƤ뤬̴ФäʬۤϡѸŪˤϸťΥɸƱ nef ¸ߤˤä䶯줿ΤǤϤʤȹͤʤ롥
Ѹˤθʤ餳Ͽޤɤ߲ȡ̻ŪˤϼΤ褦ʲäΤǤϤʤ롥ޤűѸˤ bill ˹ʬۤƤ¤ neb ⤽ʤʬۤƤǽ뤬Ȥ櫓ťΥɸȤܿ衤ϤƤä³Ѹ˥ե줫ο beak 餯Ƴ졤Ⱦ˥ڤŤƤäȾϰǤ beak θ֤Ĥ夷Ƥäˤ bill neb ֤ȤӤ뾮褬ȻĤ뤳ȤȤʤäʾ1ĤˤΥʥꥪˤʤʤȤϿޤμʬ̷ۤ⤷ʤʥꥪǤ롥Ͽޤɤ߲1ĤλȤơ#2019. ؤˤ6Ĥθ§ ([2014-11-06-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006.
Trudgill (94--95) ˤȡ (Traditional Dialects)Ūˤϡ#1029. England θѸʬ (1) ([2012-02-20-1]) Ǽ Western Southwest, Northern Southwest, Eastern Southwest Ǥϡ¾ѼˤϤߤʤäʿ;̾ˡ롥̵ʪؼΤɸѼǤϿ;̾ it Ѥ뤬ǤϤ̵ʪɽ魯ΤĻ̾ (countable noun) Ǥ he ԲĻ̾ (uncountable noun or mass noun) Ǥ it ѤΤ§ȤʤäƤ롥ĻԲĻȤʸˡƥ˴Ťƿ;̾ȤʬȤǤϡʸˡ (grammatical gender) ƤȤͤ뤫⤷ʤ
㤨С "He's a good hammer." ȤȤhe ϤؤΤǤϤʤޤDzĻ̾Ǥ̵ʪؤɸѼǤ it ѤȤˡޤloaf ϲĻ̾Ǥ뤫顤"Pass the loaf --- he's over there." Τ褦 he Ǽ롥bread ԲĻ̾Ǥ뤫顤"I likes this bread --- it's very tasty." Τ褦 it Ѥ롥 Dorset ˤơhe ľβĻ̾ dress ؤ (Trudgill 95 Ʒ)
Zo I 'ad me 'air done, Lor' what a game!
I thought me 'ead were on vire.
But 'twas worth it, mind, I looked quite zmart ---
I even got a glance vrom the Squire.
I got out me best dress, but he were tight,
Zo I bought meself a corset.
Lor', I never thought I'd breathe agin,
But I looked zo zlim 'twas worth it.
Ļ̾ԲĻ̾ζ̤ɸѼǤǧʸˡƥǤϴ괧줬դ뤫ˡŪʣθդ뤫ˡ¡ʿ̤礭ɽ魯Τ many much ˤʤɤˤƶƤðۤʤΤϡƱʸˡƥ˲äƿ;̾ˤͿȤˤƤǤ롥ǤϡƱƥʸˡؤߤٹ礤¾Ѽ⤤äȤȤˤʤ롥
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
ȾŤƤȤȾ wave_theory ˤĤơζ#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1])#1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])#1055. uvular r θ춭ۤ ([2012-03-17-1])#1505. ˤ "mouse"-line "house"-line ([2013-06-10-1])#1506. The Rhenish fan ([2013-06-11-1]) ʤɤǤߤƤȾκǤʲˤСϤʸ̤ƱߤʤȤäƤȤ롥Ū֤ѸǸȡ濴ϤȤʤĮ¼顤̤ء٤礦Į¼˽缡ŤƤȤȤˤʤ롥
νȾˤƤϤޤʤŤλ¿ڤ롥Τߤʤ餺ʸŪήԤˤ¤ˤ衤ɬ٤礦Į¼ŤȤϸ¤餺Υ줿ӲФȤȤꤦ롥Ȥ櫓֤ȯãҲǤϡդ¼̤ꤷơԻԴ֤dzͭ륿ߥΤۤᤤȤ¿㤨Сȯγϡ쳰Ⱦ˹ޤ⡤쳤ƻ˱äӤ˲̾͡Ųԡۤᤤ⤷ʤξ硤ȾȤꤷʤ롥ξ¾ŪʴطǤϤʤФγʾǤϲ̾͡ŲԡˤϡϤλɷˤꤽ濴ˤϤ꿷椬äơȾΤۤŪʥǥǤ餷Ȥ狼롥
Chambers and Trudgill ˤƤǴϢʲʸϤȤΤǰѤƤ
As for dialect-to-dialect change, the wave model was first proposed to describe the geographical diffusion of linguistic innovation. Then some geographically aware linguists developed an extended theory on linguistic diffusion over space. Chambers and Trudgill, for example, advanced the gravity model against the wave model to account for the path along which innovation diffuses in space (166). In this model, a linguistic innovation is likened to a stone skipping across a pond because it spreads not necessarily from a speaker or place to the immediate next but jumps from a speaker or place to another which may be geographically apart but socially connected. For example, linguistic innovation can spread from a big city to another, skipping through small towns in between. (Hotta 173)
Ť˴ؤζȤƤϡˤֶפɽ魯 bridge ɸˤ brig ʬۤʰʲϿޤ Upton and Widdowson 154 ˡԤϸűѸŪʷ (brycg) ѾǤꡤԤϸťΥɸƱη (bryggja) ƶȤǤ롥ŪʬۤȤƤϡȾ bridge Ǥ brig ԤƤ뤬ߤ2սꡤ줾Υ줿ꥢˡbridge ѤƤ뾮褬롥1ĤϺ̤ Newcastle, Sunderland, Durham ޤ२ꥢ⤦1ĤϤ Humber ϸ Grimsby ޤ२ꥢǤ롥Ϥ٤ brig Ǥϰˡ2Ĥξ褬ݥĥݥĤȾΤ褦⤫ǤݤϡϤȤɸ bridge ȾǤ露˵ͤäƤȤϡ쳤ߤԻԤԻԤؤʬۤȤƤȤŤλ롥ơ쳤ߤγԻԤ٤ؤȡ٤Ϥ褽ȾʬۤȤƤäȤ

Trudgill (129, 132) ϥɤԻԲĬήȴϢŤơʬۤɤ߲Ƥ롥
The geographical patterning of the occurrence of the two words suggests that the southern and Standard English word is beginning to spread north, and in a rather interesting way. In its spread northwards, bridge has first invaded the coastal city areas of Sunderland and Grimsby, and then spread outwards again from these centres. This is just one example of the importance of urban centres in the spreading of new forms in language . . ., and of the way in which the increasing urbanization of England has contributed in this century to the loss of Traditional Dialects.
Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English." PhD thesis, University of Glasgow. Glasgow, November 2005.
Chambers, J. K. and Peter Trudgill. Dialectology. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006. *
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
͡ϿޤįʤܸȥɱѸˤĤƳפؤܤȻפʲ4äɤŪɤߤ䤹ڤϿޤΤ⤷̣廊Τ褤
𡡡ܤ١ȽŹҴȿӡ1958ǯ
ԡˡܤϿޡ33ǡҡӡ2013ǯ. *
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006. *
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
ؤȸˤ̩ܤʴطˤ롥ϤˤǺƤ졤ˤμϿޤβƤ롥ξԤϢȤռС̻֤ȶ֤θȤʤ뤷ƻŪ (panchronic) ʿ̤Ȥʤ롥ѸˤεҤ䶵ˤ⡤θळȤˤꡤʲǽΤǤϤʤȴƤ롥
ơܤˤϿˤϡΤʤǤǤŤत°롥 (ii) ˤȡʸʤιĴѰɸλͤȤ뤿˲ȸˡ˴ؤĴԤ̤ȤƴԤ줿29̤Ρزʬۿޡ (1905) 37̤Ρظˡʬۿޡ (1906) ܤؤνȯǤ롥Gilliéron ˤŪʥեϿ (Atlas linguistique de la France) νǤ1902--10ǯǤ뤳ȤͤȡܤᤤȯŸƤΤ褦˻פ롥ιĴѰŪɸȤäŪʿ̤ȤƤؤΤθȯŸ礭뤳ȤϤʤä
ܤؤˤȤäƼνפʷȤʤäϡĹˤΡ͡ (1930) (cf. #1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])) Ǥ롥ĤФĬήˤܺäȯŸԤʤФʤʤä塤Ω츦ʸʡʸģˤˤ絬ϤĴη̤Ȥơ300̤˵ڤܸ֡Ͽޡ (1966--74) Ԥ줿Ūؤܸˤθ˻뤳ȤǤꡤȰۤʤꡤ餫˲ʳŪƤܸؤܳŪߤϤ˻ϤޤȤäƤ褤˼䤹ܤϿޡ١ԡˡˤϡܸϿޡ٤300̤50̤ӽФǫ˲⤷ؤǤ롥
ѸϿϡܤ¾Υ衼åѽ٤ơ٤ƤɱѸκǽܳŪϿޤϡHarold Orton Eugen Dieth ޤLeeds ؤȤƹԤ줿絬ϤĴ˴Ť Survey of English Dialects A in 1962; B in 1962--71) Ǥ롥ϡĴ1948--61ǯΤ313ˤ (Traditional Dialects) Ĵ̤ǤꡤɤؤδäʤΤǤ롥
ܤˤƤ⥤ɤˤƤ⡤絬Ĵ˴Ťƺ줿ϿޤߤγƸؤδäȤʤäƤ롥줾줹ǤȾʾĴ̤ǤꡤŤᤫʤäƤ뤳ȤǤʤϿޤ11礬줾θüԤˤʪäƤꡤǤȤȤ˵Ṯ̌¯ȤʤäƤ롥
եؽγ顤ʼեǤ actif, effectif ʤɸ -if ĸŪ˷ƻˤ¿ꡤǤϸФΤȤ -if Ǥ -ive θե줫ѤѸǤ -ive §Ǥ롥ʤѸϥե줫餳θǼѤΤ
餤С -ive ϥեб -ive ľܤȿǤΤǤϤʤѸϼȤѸ˥ե줫餢ޤǸФˤ -if ηǼѤΤǤꡤ˱ѸǤβѲˤ̵ [f] [v] ͭȯ˹碌 -<ive> Ȥֻ̲ȤȤǤ롥
ѸǤϤΥեѸФֻͥ -<if> Ǥ롥Ǥͭ -<ive> 褷ƾʤʤġñˤäξԤδ֤ǤɤۤʤȻפ뤬Ūˤ -<if> ήǤȹͤ롥ˡ#1178. MED Spelling Search ([2012-07-18-1]) ǡ"if\b.*adj\." "ive\b.*adj\." ʤɤȸФ측ƤߤȡȤƤ -<if> äƤ롥Ѹ٤ι⤤ effective, positive, active, extensive, attractive, relative, massive, negative, alternative, conservative Ĵ٤ƤߤȡMED Ǥ -<if> ФȤƺǽ˵äƤ롥
Ǥ˸ѸˤϤֻɽ蘆ȯ [ɪf] ˤơҲ [f] [v] ͭĤĤäˤ϶֤꤬Ϳ롥ޤեǤΤ˶ƤꡤѸǤƱͤ˶äȤѸǤ϶֤촴ذư뷹ä (cf. #200. Ȥΰ֤襤 --- ޥϤޥϤ ([2009-11-13-1])#718. ѸζѥѸѼ ([2011-04-15-1])#861. Ѹθ춯ΰ֤˴ؤ3ס ([2011-09-05-1])#1473. Germanic Stress Rule ([2013-05-09-1])) ˶ʤʤȡ [f] Verner's Law ʤΰ̲ˤ˽ͭ [v] Ȥʤäverners_law ȻҲͭˤĤƤϡäˡ#104. hundred ͥˡ§ ([2009-08-09-1]) ȡ#858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1]) Ȥ줿
嵭βĶˤ [f] ޤͭΤϡ (378) ˤС14ȾNǤϤˡפȤ롥褽Ʊˡ[s] > [z], [θ] > [ð] ͭⵯä (ex. is, was, has, washes; with)
˽Ҥ٤аޤǡեѸ -if ϸ˸¤ -ive ؤѲΤ㳰Ū -if ˤȤɤޤäΤ롥bailiff ʼ, caitiff ܶԡ, mastiff ʥޥա, plaintiff ʸˤʤɤϡŤ [f] [v] δ֤ɤƤǽŪ [f] βɸಽǤ롥
ʾJespersen (200--01) Ƥ餪
The F ending -if was in ME -if, but is in Mod -ive: active, captive, etc. Caxton still has pensyf, etc. The sound-change was here aided by the F fem. in -ive and by the Latin form, but these could not prevail after a strong vowel: brief. The law-term plaintiff has kept /f/, while the ordinary adj. has become plaintive. The earlier forms in -ive of bailiff, caitif, and mastiff, have now disappeared.
Ƭμ˲СѸ -ive ľܥեΡʤ뤤ϥƥͳ褹˽ -ive ڤꤿΤǤϤʤե줫Ѥ -if λҲѸβѲˤͭΤɽ魯αѸüԤեν -ive ˤٸƤȤαƶʬϤ뤫⤷ʤޤǤδͿϴŪȤߤʤƤΤ
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
ɸθΤ褦˸Ѹ -<ow> ĸϡѸǤ -<we> ֤Τ̤Ǥ롥űѸǤϸФ folgian, sceadu, sorg Τ褦͡ѸˤƸ촴ȾҲ /w/ ȯã (cf. #194. shadow shade ([2009-11-07-1])) Ѹ -<we> ʹߤֻȯȯãˤĤƴؿäΤǡĴ٤Ƥߤ
ޤ Jespersen (192) ˤȡ -<we> ɽ蘆ȾҲ /w/ /u/ ؤ첻벻ѲФ /u/ ϤȤĹ /uː/ ȤʤꡤĹûδ֤ǤФ餯ɤ餯Ĺɽ魯Τ <ow> ֻѤ줿ΤǤϤʤȤǡ/o/ /oʊ/ İ۷⸽Ƥ褦ǡ<ow> ϤθԤľܤΤȤͤ롥Ʊˡ첻岽 /ə/ ⸽졤ѸɸŪȯȤƤϰѤƤ롥
. . . /wə/ became syllabic /w/, that is /u/, thus ME folwe, shadwe, sorwe, medwe, etc. became /folu, ʃadu/, etc. This pronunciation is often found in the old orthoepists; thus H 1569 has /felu/ and /feluˑ/ by the side of /felo/, /folu/ by the side of /folo/, and /halu/, for fellow, follow, hallow.
M 1582 says that -ow in the ending of bellow, mellow, yallow is = "u quick". H 1662 likewise -ow = u: hollow hollu, tallow tallu, etc.; J 1701 has "oo" in follow. This pronunciation is continued in vg [ə]:[fɔlə, gæləs], and the spelling -ow adopted in all these words was probably at first intended for the sound /u/ or possibly /uˑ/. But we soon find another pronunciation cropping up; H 1569, besides /u/ as mentioned, has also /boro/ and /borou/ borrow. G 1621 does not seem to know /u/, but has /oˑu/ in follow, shadow, bellow, hollow. J 1764 says that -ow in follow, etc. = "o", but if another vowel follows, it is "ow". Now [o(ˑ)u] is the established pronunciation.
Dobson Vol. 2 (866--67) äƤߤȡ /w/ ˤ錄겻 (glide) Ȥ /o/ ȯãΤǤϤʤȤDobson Jespersen ʣѰۤꤷƤ褦ȾҲ /w/ Ϳ벻ˤϡ¿ variants ȯã뤫ǤϤʤ
(2) Variation between late ME ou and ŭ from ME -we
§295. In words such as folwe(n) 'follow' there were variant developments in ME: either a glide-vowel o developed before the w, which then vocalized to [u], giving the diphthong ou; or the w, after final ĕ had become silent in late ME, vocalized to [u], which was identified with ME ŭ. PresE has regularly [o(:)] < ME ou, but formerly [ʊ] (or, by reduction, [ə]) < ME ŭ was common in follow, narrow, sparrow, borrow, morrow, yellow, &c. ME ou (or sounds developed from it) is shown by Hart (who has boro, &c. with [o] < [o:] < ou and felō with [o:] < ou; in all six forms < ME ou, against more than twice as many < ME ŭ), Laneham (folo, &c., but also ŭ), Bullokar, Robinson, Gil (who has both [ou] and [o:] < ME ou), Butler, Hodges, Newton, Lye, Lodwick, Cocker, Brown, and the shorthand-writers T. Shelton, Everardt, Bridges, Heath, and Hopkins. The pronunciations [ʊ] and [u:] (by lengthening of [ʊ]) < ME ŭ are shown by Salesbury, Hart (commonly), Laneham (yelloo 'yellow'), Mulcaster, Jonson (apparently; he says o loses its sound in willow and billow), Howell (1662), Price, Richardson, and WSC-RS. Gil gives fula, in which the a must represent [ə] (probably < ME ŭ) as a Northern form of follow. In the seventeenth century these words also had pronunciations with [ə] and perhaps with [ɪ] . . ., which are likely to be derived from the ME ŭ rather than the ME ou variant.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
ε#2029. ܤ̤ץåˡ ([2014-11-16-1]) ˰³ϥꥹǤҤ٤褦ˡްϤ褽ɸಽȵˤƤ롥ɸಽΰϤʤФʤۤɡưʤȤޤꥹǤϡѸɸಽưϽѸ˻Ϥޤꡤ褽Ϣưλ뤹Ĭ1600ǯޤǤƤGeorge Puttenham (1530?--90) ˤΤȤ The Arte of English Poesie (1589) ϡɥεäѸɸȤƿ侩ʳ٤ǤȤƤ롥
neither shall he take termes of Northernmen, such as they vse in dayly talke, whether they be noble men or gentlemen, or of their best clerkes all is a matter: nor in effect any speach vsed beyond the river of Trent, though no man can deny but that theirs is the purer English Saxon at this day, yet it is not so Courtly nor yet so currant as our Southerne English is, no more is the far Westerne mans speach: ye shall therfore take the vsuall speach of the Court, and that of London and the shires lying about London within lx myles, and not much above. (cited in Upton and Widdowson 6)
17ȾβŻˤѤФŪȤʤꡤ18ˤ Swift, Dryden, Johnson ʤɤɸಽɤʸͤŪ˳ư˵ڤǡѤϷоݤˤʤä18Ⱦ19ˤƤϵϼ̾ΤȤˡϰ̤Ϥޤޤơ1881ǯζˡ1921ǯ BBC Ωˤɸ춵餬˿䤷ʤ졤ѤѤ٤ΤȤΥ경
ѸϡȤȤޤѤäꥹгŪʶĥΤʤǡŪʵϤäºݤɸˤϤޤ3--4ۤɤλ֤䤵졤ڤˤϤʤ֤פɸɵ᤹뤽ĹΤʤǡСްоݤȤ졤̰ռȥץå߽ФƤˤνפϡ21θߤ뤳Ȥʤ͡ο˻ĤäƤ롥εȹ碌ơܤȥꥹ̤ץåˤӤ줿
ʤǰѤΤ Upton and Widdowson νϤ "A Language of Dialect" ꤹ (2--7) ϱѸˤʷ˵ҤΤȤơؤƤȻפ
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006.
ä̸꤬ɸФץåϡĿͤǤϤʤҲǤ롥ȤΤϡطʤˤ̤Ȥ꤬뤫ꥹǤϾĴ¤ƤƤħϤȤϤ̤ϺĤäƤ롥αؤƤåȥɤΥ饹 Glaswegian Ȥ̾⤤¤ȼѸäƤꡤȤƤĥ饹̱ΤʤˤץåļԤ⤤롥ꥹ٤СܤξǤϤʤܤǤ2--3ΤǶޤ̤ϸäߤǤ⡤ɽäˤ뤳ȤϾʤʤäȤϤ;϶ĤäƤ롥üԸĿͤʤпϤˤȤ礭ץå餫ηƤĿͤϾʤʤ褦˻פ롥
Ʊ褦⼫֤ȤǤʤ¾塤ޤ줿Ȥ˷ޤäƤޤΤǤ롥줽ΤΤϸŷŪ˳ȤϤϼ֤ȤǤʤȤǡȩοȱʤɤηŪħƱ褦ˡ֤äޤ줿ΡפǤ롥Ǻ̤ȤȤϡ褢äƤϤʤʤŪħȤϰۤʤꡤϼǡֶǤפȤǽ⤷ʤDzءֶפ٤ʤΤǤ롥ꤵƤΤϡ̾ζ̸ɸȤҿΤȤȡ̸ɸ줬ꤵƤʤСֶפȤǰ⤢ꤨʤ̤ץåʤ̤ץåκˤϡɸդ줿ҿȡ˽٤Ȥ礭ʼҲΰϤ롥üԸĿͤǤϤʤҲȹͤʤ
ܤˤ̤ץåεϡʹߤɸȤʤ붵˵롥ϤޤФȤʷϵꡤܤ˸ɸβĤϹԤʤäդ꤫̱²ռιޤȤȤ˹μʤȤɸؤνФ褦ˤʤäгŪʶĥƹ˵Ϥ褦ˤʤȤΤϡˤ귿ѥǤ롥Τ褦ɸ춵餬Ϥ˿ʤ졤֤ȤǤ䤷ʤ줿cf. #1741. ȤƤȳ (1) ([2014-02-01-1])#1784. ([2014-03-16-1])ˡβѤΡΤȤݤ̱ΰռ˿߹ޤ졤塤ߤ˻ޤǤν뤳ȤʤĤäƤʰʾ塤ġpp. 110--18 ȡˡ
ꥹˤϡҤΤȤꡤܤΤΤǤ롥ϡṲ̄ץåˤܤǤϤ100ǯۤɤǤΤФꥹǤ300--400ǯۤɤ⤢뤫ˤĤƤϡεǡ
𡡡ܤ١ȽŹҴȿӡ1958ǯ
ܤǤ⥤ɤǤ⡤οʿ (dialect levelling) äƤȤ (cf. #1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])) ڡ̤ήα߳경ǥȯãʤɤˤꡤŪζ̸첽ɸ첽®˿ʤǤȤ롥Τ褦ʾǡν̾ͫǡषϰƱ褦˳趷褷ƤȤ븫⤢롥ŪϳΤ˿षƤƤ뤬 Modern Dialects ʤɤȸƤФ뿷ϤǸƤꡤκʤǤȤ뤫ؼԤθˤСܤǤ⥤ɤǤϲ餫η³ƤꡤϤäƼ¸³Ƥ椯ȤϳΤǤꡤᤤ˾Ǥ뤪Ϥʤ
ܤ٤路 (72--73) 1958ǯλǡܤ̤ˤĤŪΤͽۤ
츻ռμѡƱ͡ȤäŪͳǡ줬Ǥꡤäꤹ롥ϡɡʹ֤οŪƯˤΤǤ롥ΤϡΤ褦ʡŪŪͳˤäƤǤñʤӤλȤˤνѤǤ롥顤٤ƤñϡĤʸŪ濴Ϥޤơ줬ؤȹޤ롤ȤäǤΩʤˡñϤǤäñϤǤϤʤ顤٤ƤñϡϤǡХХˤĤ줿Ȥ⡤ΩʤϤꡤˤ濴Ϥäơޤ줿ñ줬ޤϰعäȤȤ⤢롥濴Ϥ˰ĤǤϤʤĤ⾮濴Ϥä
襳ߥ˥ǻͤˤʤꡤ츻ռƱͤʤɤΧ˹Ԥ夬̤Ǥ뤬ޤǤϡ̤Ǥʤʤꡤ̤ȯȤȤäơΤϻĤΤȻפ롥
СֳפȤƤζ̸줬ޤꡤ줬ʿѲʤȤϤ롥ɤˡʤĤĤ롥⡤Τ̤ǤäơϰҲ˿ʬ䡤ѤιȤߤ٤ʬϤʤʤƶʤȻפ
ɤˤĤƤ⡤Trudgill (84) ƱݤΥȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ɤθ̤Ƕ̸첽ƤΤϳΤΤΤʤʤ뤳ȤϤʤͽƤ롥
Happily, however, it is certain that, whatever the exact form of future developments will be, there will never be total uniformity across the country, because innovations will always continue to spread and recede and thus continue to produce the rich mosaic of regional variation in pronunciation which has characterized England ever since English first became its language.
21ȾθߡܤǤ⥤ɤǤ⡤̾ƤȤƤɽΤŬڤ⤷ʤơʿԤŪ˶̸첽ɸ첽ȤĬή⡤ޥԥå˿ʹԤƤΤǤ롥
𡡡ܤ١ȽŹҴȿӡ1958ǯ
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
ε#2026. intrusive r (2) ([2014-11-13-1]) Ǹ奤ɤʬۤ礵Ƥ븽ݤ1Ĥܤ⤦1Ĥε®ʬۤȤƤ벻ѲǤ [l] 첻Ҳ𤷤褦벻Ķˤ [l] 첻βӤӤ뷹ǸȤʤäƤƤꡤ礷Ƥ (Trudgill 63--66; Ͽޤ Trudgill 64 Ȥ˺)

ɽȤƵΤmilk ȯǤ롥 [mɪlk] ȯ[mɪʊlk] Ф [mɪʊk] ؤѲƤƤ롥[l] (ä dark l; cf. #1817. Ѹ /l/ /r/ (2) ([2014-04-18-1])) Τĸľ첻˱ƶͿơ[ɪ] [ɪʊ] Ѥ [l] ϾäƹԤȤǤ롥첻θ [l] ³ĶǹäƤꡤhill, roll, ball ʤɤǤƱݤǧ롥ŪˤƱ (assimilation) 1ǤꡤۤȤǤʤɥä˸˵äƤꡤ쥤ɤ濴˱ƶϤϤƤȤ̣Ǥϡfill feel Ȥ [fɪʊ ? fɪʊl] ˹줷Ƥꡤdoll dole [dʌʊ] ؼ̤pull Paul [pʌʊ] ͻ礷ƤޤäƤ롥
250ǯۤ non-prevocalic /r/ æɥդǵꡤϤ礷ƤȤͤȡ non-prevocalic /l/ æɥ濴˻ϤޤäƤȤȤϼŪǤ롥塤ɤΤ깭ϰس礷ɸˤɸܤ褦ˤʤǽ롥
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
#500. intrusive r ([2010-09-09-1]) Ǹ "The idea(r) is . . . ." ʤɤ˸ r ˤĤơθݤϡRP ޤѸνʬۤƤ롤߿ʹθѲǤ롥ñΤǤ뤤ϻҲ³Ȥˤ /aɪˈdɪə/첻³ĶǤ /aɪˈdɪər/ Ѱۤ붦Ūݤ֤ȤȤʬۤƤȤǤ̻ŪݤǤ⤢롥
εǽҤ٤褦ˡintrusive r ΤϡŵŪ /ɔː/, /ɑː/, /ɜː/, /ə/ Τ줫첻ǽˤƤǤ롥ѰۤüԤˤȤäƤϡθδ첻ˤ /r/ ޤޤƤꡤ첻³ĶǤ /r/ Τޤ¸뤬ʳδĶǤ /r/ æǡʤȤƼ¸Ȥ§ߤƤȹͤ롥
Ѱۤ뤤ѲطʤǺѤƤ륫饯ͤƤߤ褦Ūɸ।ꥹѸѼǤϡ㤨 ear δ첻 /ɪər/idea δ첻 /aɪˈdɪə/ Ǥꡤ/r/ ̵ͭ˴ؤΤ˶̤Ƥñ첻³ĶʳǤ /ɪə/ ȤǼ¸뤿ˡ줾δ첻ˤ /r/ ̵ͭˤĤơɽŪʥҥȤ뵡ʤΤϤС첻 /ə/ ǽ /ər/ ǽΤۤŪ¿Ȥ⤢ꡤ (analogy) θ̤ idea ʤɤδ첻 /r/ 뤳ȤȤʤäˤꡤear idea ɽŪˤƱǼ¸뵡¿ˤ⤫餺ۤʤ첻⤿ʤФʤʤȤôȤʤ֤ä줿Ȥˤʤ롥
Υ饯ϡɽŪʥҥȡפηǡǤ롥첻³ĶʳȤ櫓ñΤǼ¸ݤˡear idea ȤǸζ̤ʤȤˤꡤߤδ첻Τˤ̤ʤϤȤǽȤʤ롥դ˸С¸벻˶̤硤ʤ줾 /ɪər/, /aɪˈdɪə/ ȯѼˤƤϡΥ饯꤬ư뤭äʤˡintrusive r ʤͽ¬롥ơºݤˤͽ¬Ȥ狼äƤ롥non-prevocalic /r/ ѼǤ intrusive r Ƥ餺Τ褦ѼüԤϡ¾ѼǤ intrusive r ̯ʸݤȤȤ館Ƥ褦Trudgill (58) ΥȤ̣
. . . of course it [intrusive r] is a process which occurs only in the r-less accents. R-ful accents (as they are sometimes called), in places like the southwest, USA and Scotland, do not have this feature, because they have not undergone the loss of 'r' which started the whole process off in the first place. Speakers of r-ful accents therefore often comment on the intrusive-'r' phenomenon as a peculiar aspect of the accents of England. One can, for example, hear Scots ask 'Why do English people say "Canadarr"?'. English people of course do not say 'Canadarr', but those of them who have r-less accents do mostly say 'Canadarr and England' /kænədər ən ɪŋglənd/.
r ȯ̵ͭˤĤƤϡ#406. Labov New York City /r/ ([2010-06-07-1])#452. ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1])#453. ꥫѸνˤ r ([2010-07-24-1])#1050. postvocalic r ΥϿޤˤĤ ([2012-03-12-1])#1371. New York City ˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-27-1])#1535. non-prevocalic /r/ μҲŪʲ͡ ([2013-07-10-1]) ۤrhotic ȡ
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
#1494. multilingualism ξ֤Ǥ ([2013-05-30-1])#1608. multilingualism ξ֤Ǥ (2) ([2013-09-21-1])#1374. 衼åѳƹ¿ѹǤ ([2013-01-30-1]) ǸƤ褦ˡΤۤܤ٤Ƥϰʣθ줬ѤƤ롥ΤȤ¿쾯ʤŪˤƤϤޤ롥
ѹǤѸΤۤȽ줬äƤȤ櫓ḽǤϤΰ̱Ĥ줾θѤ褷Ƥϰʤäƥɤ˸¤äƤ⡤5Ѹ줬ͥǤ뤳ȤϵʤȤϤϤŪˤ¿¾θ줬ԤƤԤƤ롥㤨СߥɥΤߤʤ餺͡ĮǡPanjabi, Gujerati, Bengali, Italian, Greek, Maltese, Chinese, Turkish ޤ¿θ줬äƤ롥ޤBritish Sign Language Τ褦ʼø⥤ɤθ¿˹Ƥ롥
ˤȤɤޤ餺夫Фƶ˻ޤǤΥɤθˤ֤äƤߤȡι¿ѹǤä狼롥Ƚ줬äƤɤϤ˸¿˾ܳŪƳΤϡͤäϥɤ˥ƥ⤿餷2Ѿޤ줿ˡ5ȾСѸ줬⤿餵줿8ȾФϥˤťΥɸ줬ޤ졤11ȾФˤϥΥޥơɤǤϥΥޥե줬Ѥե줬ä褦ˤʤ롥
ˤϡΤ褦ˤɽ˴Ф褦ʼήɤθˤȤɤޤ餺澮θޤѤƤ㤨12 Norwich ˤϡεϤγͼҲΩƤꡤѸ¤ǥե졤ǥޡ졤졤ޤ Ladino ȸƤФͤѤڥѼ郎ԤƤä16 Norwich ǤϿ1/3üԤǤꡤξ200ǯʾ³Ȥ
ޤˤϥޥˡ (Romany) ä른ץ (the Gypsies) ήߡɤˤ뤽αƶ Anglo-Romany ȸƤФѸѼ˸ˤʤ륺衼åѽƤǤ Romany ϤޤĤäƤ롥
ȡŪ̱ȤƥüԤեüԤɤ̤ή˸Ū˽ƱƤäΤΡФ餯δ֤¿Į˽߹Cornwall ǤϥȷϤ Cornish äƤ16衤ѸοƩˤ18ȾˤϾǤ20Υɥ East End ˤ¿Υ Yiddish üԤƤθϸߤǤ⥤ɤǷߤǤ롥
ʾ塤Trudgill (18--19) ͤ˵Ҥ奤ꥹ¿ˤĤƤϡBritain ԤʸܳŪǤ롥
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
Britain, David, ed. Language in the British Isles. Cambridge: CUP, 2007.
춭 n Ϳʬ metanalysis αѸˤ#4. ǶܤǤѸñȯڤƤ롩 ([2009-05-03-1])#27. ʬϤˤϤɤФ褤 ([2009-05-25-1])#475. That's a whole nother story. ([2010-08-15-1])#1306. for the nonce ([2012-11-23-1])#1951. ѸΰΡ ([2014-08-30-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ괧 an ؤ뤳Ȥ¿ΰʬ (numerical metanalysis) ȤΤ뤬 (cf. #344. cherry ΰʬϡ ([2010-04-06-1])) ͭ̾ mine, thine Ϳ⾯ʤʤ
ϡѸǤʤɤ˻ĤˤʤɸŪ naunt (aunt) nuncle (uncle) ˤߤʬϤ夲롥MED aunte (n.) OED naunt, n. ˤСο² n ǻϤޤ۷ϡa1400 (1325) Cursor Mundi (Vesp.) þi naunt ȤƽФ롥ۤˤ þy naunt, my nawnte ʤɽͭ̾ȤȤ˸㤬졤ʬϤβ뤳ȤǤ롥naunt ϸɸȤƺѤ뤳ȤϤʤäWright English Dialect Dictionary (cf. EDD Online) ˤСʤȤ19ˤ n.Cy., Wm., Yks., Lan., Chs., Stf., Der., Wor., Shr., Glo., Oxf., Som. ʤɼȤƥǹԤƤ
Ʊ褦 nuncle ˤĤĴ٤ƤߤȡMED uncle (n.) OED nuncle, n. ˡʬϤˤ n þi nunkle Τ褦㤬15˸롥ʤ̾ȤƤ Nuncle 1314ǯ˽ФΤǡʬϤβΤΤƤ褦Ѹˤϡ줫ʬȻפ nunky, nunks ʤɤθ OED ˵ϿƤ롥EDD ˤСnaunt Ʊ n.Cy., Yks., Lan., Chs., Der., Lei., Wor., Shr., Glo., Hmp., Wil., Dor., Som., Dev. ʤɤνǹѻ롥
ͭ̾ mine thine ԤʬϤϡOED N, n. ˾ܽҤƤ뤬¿14--16Ƥ롥ɸȤ夷ʤäΤ¿Ȥȹ碌ơΰʬϷѸˤ˼ƤƤӤθʬۤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤä餫ˤɬפɸ˻ĤäƤʬϤ˲äơɬʬۤʤäΤ褦ʡּŪʡװʬϤ碌ƹθ뤳Ȥạ̇̄ҤǽȤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
ʤѸ aunt ϡƥ amita ťե aunte ͳ1300ǯ˱ѸäƤΤեǤϤθƬ t ղä tante ɸಽرѸ츻ŵ٤Ϥ t ˤĤơĻλȤ papa βýŷ antante 뤤 t'ante thy aunt ͳ褹ʤɽ⤬פȤƤ롥⤷ t'ante ΤǤСե tante ȱѸ naunt ϲۤʤ졤Ʊͤ˰ʬϤȤȤˤʤ롥
#1029. England θѸʬ (1) ([2012-02-20-1]) ڤӡ#1030. England θѸʬ (2) ([2012-02-21-1]) Ǹ奤ɤαѸʬǼΤϤ (Traditional Dialects) Ǥ롥20ȾФˤϤǤ˸षƤꡤ21θߤǤϤθब³ǤäƤȤäƤǤϤʤǡפ븽 (Modern Dialects) ääƼ㤤˱ƶϤڤܤƤꡤȤƤϼήΥפȤʤäƤ롥Υɤ Modern Dialects ϡܸؼԤΰͺִܸĤĤΤȤֿפˡĤӤ졤̣
Trudgill (5--6) ϡTraditional Dialects ֤ΤȤƤ Modern Dialects 뤤 Mainstream Dialects Ȥܤζ̤Τ褦ɽƤˤĤƤϡ[2012-02-20-1]εΰѤȡˡ
Mainstream Dialects, on the other hand, include both the Standard English Dialect and the Modern Nonstandard Dialects. Most native English speakers speak some variety of Mainstream Dialect. These dialects are associated with native speakers outside the British Isles, especially in recently settled areas which speak mixed colonial dialects, such as Australia and most of America and Canada. In Britain, they are particularly associated with those areas of the country from which Standard English originally came --- the southeast of England; with most urban areas; with places which have become English-speaking only relatively recently, such as the Scottish Highlands, much of Wales, and western Cornwall; with the speech of most younger people; and with middle- and upper-class speakers everywhere. The mainstream Modern Nonstandard Dialects differ much less from Standard English and from each other, and are often distinguished much more by the pronunciation --- their accent --- than by their grammar.
ʲ˼ΤϡTrudgill (66--67) ˤ Modern Dialects ζʬǤ롥ΡɤγĤǤ Flash ǤߤΤɤ
*
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Blackwell: Malden, MA: 2000.
#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1])#2013. ꥢ (1) ([2014-10-31-1])#2014. ꥢ (2) ([2014-11-01-1])#2020. ۩Ѳθ "expressivity" Ǥ ([2014-11-07-1]) εǡϢꥢؤ夲ƤؤǤϡѲˤĿͤ䤬̤˲Ф롥ɤϳƼȤʬۤ˶ؿäɤǤ⤢뤬Ȥ¼ñ̤ǰۤʤѤȤ̤˭˶òʬŪʵǤĿ (idiolect) ؤδؿ˹Ԥ夤ΤȻפ롥ѲθĿͤɽϤΤʤ˸ȤΤϡˤȤäɬǤä
ѸˤΤ褦˸̸ˤ礭Ȥ館Ω줫ϡѲˤüԸĿͤαƶϤϤۤ礭ʤȤȤ롥㤨С#257. Chaucer Ѹ˾˲̤Ȥϡ ([2010-01-09-1]) #298. Chaucer Ѹ˾˲̤Ȥϡ (2) ([2010-02-19-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡ Chaucer αѸ˾䤬ɾƤ餤뤳ȤŦƤ롥ʸػ˾ȸ˾ϡΤ̸Ĥ˹ͤ٤
Ǥ⡤#1412. 16Ⱦ˸Ū2ͤ Thomas ([2013-03-09-1]) #1439. ͳ褹ɽ ([2013-04-05-1]) ʤɤεǤߤ褦ˡθĿͤΤʤۤȤɤξϸáˤˤƸŪʤܤ˸Ȥ¤ϻĤ롥¿ζĤ Shakespeare Ϥᡤʸػˤ˻Ĥ褦ʸͤϱѸ˲餫αƶĤƤΤǤ롥
Ѹˤ̾ Bradley ϡѲˤĿͤαƶȤˤĤơŪȤ٤ȤäƤ롥
It is a truth often overlooked, but not unimportant, that every addition to the resources of a language must in the first instance have been due to an act (though not necessarily a voluntary or conscious act) of some one person. A complete history of the Making of English would therefore include the names of the Makers, and would tell us what particular circumstances suggested the introduction of each new word or grammatical form, and of each new sense or construction of a word. (150)
Now there are two ways in which an author may contribute to the enrichment of the language in which he writes. He may do so directly by the introduction of new words or new applications of words, or indirectly by the effect of his popularity in giving to existing forms of expression a wider currency and a new value. (151)
Bradley ϡΤ Wyclif, Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton ʤɤ̾ϢͤơƤ椯
Ǥ롥ΤȤƤߤСθĿͤϸŪȤ虜ʤΤǤϤʤȡϹͤƤ롥Ū¿ξ硤ĿͤϤΰѤǤȤ "indirectly" ʤΤˤȤɤޤꡤȤƱѸȤΤΤʤ糤ΰũˤʤθĿͤũȤΤϼ¤϶ä٤ȤǤ뤫顤θ¤ˤƤθĿͤαƶϤɾ뤳ȤѲˤĿͤαƶϡޥʻϲɾʤ褦դߥʻϲᾮɾʤ褦դȤΤΩ
Bradley, Henry. The Making of English. New York: Dover, 2006. New York: Macmillan, 1904.
ػˤˤ뿷ɤˤĤơ#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1])#2013. ꥢ (1) ([2014-10-31-1])#2014. ꥢ (2) ([2014-11-01-1])#2020. ۩Ѳθ "expressivity" Ǥ ([2014-11-07-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥػˤ路 Robins (214) ɤؤͿȼ³ŬڤɾƤΤǡҲ𤷤ʲΰѤǤϡɤϢʤɤ "idealists" ʴǰԡˤȤƸڤƤ롥
Language is primarily personal self-expression, the idealists maintained, and linguistic change is the conscious work of individuals perhaps also reflecting national feelings; aesthetic considerations are dominant in the stimulation of innovations. Certain individuals, through their social position or literary reputation, are better placed to initiate changes that others will take up and diffuse through a language, and the importance of great authors in the development of a language, like Dante in Italian, must not be underestimated. In this regard the idealists reproached the neogrammarians for their excessive concentration on the mechanical and pedestrian aspects of language, a charge that L. Spitzer himself very much in sympathy with Vossler, was later to make against the descriptive linguistics of the Bloomfieldian era. But the idealists in themselves concentrating on literate languages, overstressed the literary and aesthetic element in the development of languages, and the element of conscious choice in what is for most speakers most of the time simply unreflective social activity learned in childhood and subsequently taken for granted. And in no part of language is its structure and working taken more for granted than in its actual pronunciation, just that aspect on which the neogrammarians focused their attention. Nevertheless the idealistic school did well to remind us of the creative and conscious factors in some areas of linguistic change and of the part the individual can sometimes deliberately play therein.
ɤϡǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ˤ벻ѲεŪäޤꡤѲ¿ʬ˵ŪǤ餷Ȥ¤ǧ뤳ȤƤޤäϼäǯʸˡɤεŪʸѤؤȿȤơѲˤĿͤαƶϤξϢᤷȤθӤǧ롥ĿͤαƶϤǧ뤳ȤϡɬŪˤθĿͤλϤ˼ҲسȻƤ椯ؤδؿ¥ϰ (areal linguistics) (geolinguistics) ȯŸ褹뤳ȤˤʤäɤƶϤΤϤɾƤ뤭餤뤳ȤϡǰƬˤƤۤ褤cf. #1412. 16Ⱦ˸Ū2ͤ Thomas ([2013-03-09-1])ˡ
Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics. 4th ed. Longman: London and New York, 1997.
#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1])#2013. ꥢ (1) ([2014-10-31-1])#2014. ꥢ (2) ([2014-11-01-1])#2019. ؤˤ6Ĥθ§ ([2014-11-06-1]) ˰³ܲؿǤػ˾1ȶꥢɤˤĤ롥Leo Spitzer ϡؤˤ˶ƤؼԤ1ͤؽѻǥꥫ¤ؤµ Leonard Bloomfield դäȤ롥Bloomfield ǯˤȱε Spitzer ʤȤſʤΤ2ͤ϶̣ɤळȤǤ롥
Spitzer ϡѲθȤ "expressivity" ɽϡˤؤߵȤؤμĥۤȤ櫓̱²μɽȤƤʸΡפȤǰ̤˲Фɤεϡؤβʳɸ֤ Bloomfield ˤȤäƤϼ줬ĥäSpitzer ϤޤǤεˤ롥㤨Сƥ줫ޥػǤβѲ e -- ei -- oi -- ué -- uá ϡƥ e ɽ˭˼¸뤿˳̱²ʳǷФƤȯŸεפǤȵ롥βˤơLeón Aragon ǤɤλĹ³ΤФCastile ǤŪ ué ʳǸ경ԤԤŪ "chaotic" Ǥ, "restlessness" "anarchy" ħŤƤǤȷ (Spitzer 422) ̤εǤϡHitler Deutche Volksgenossen ȯˤ2Ĥ o a ˶ᤤ첻ȤƼ¸ƤȤ夲ˤ Hitler Υȥꥢ¤ɸŪʡɤץɥĸָȤطʤäΤǤϤʤƤ롥Ĥޤꡤɥ̱²Ǥ줿꽤 (hypercorrection) Ȥĥ (Spitzer 422--23)
Τˡ̱²ŪǥޥŪʸΤ褦ʹ롥ǯμҲؤǤƱθݤ accommodation ä accommodation Ȥ diversion; cf. #1935. accommodation theory ([2014-08-14-1])ˤʤɤѸǤФиڤǤꡤ줬ñ̤ĿͤʤΤ뤤̱²Τ褦ʽĤʤΤΰ㤤ϤȤƤ⡤ߤǤϤۤɥåʵǤϤʤ褦ˤפ롥ɤϡμҲؤؤνפĤꤷƤȤ롥
Spitzer ϡѲΤߤʤ餺̣ѲˤƤʤ䡤̣Ѳˤˡ"expressivity" νǧƤ롥Ūˤϡϡ"expressivity" ˻Ϥޤꡤ"standardization" ФˡƤӼγؤ³Ƥ椯ǤȹͤƤ롥
Moreover in the field of semantics as in that of phonology the same cycle may be noted: first there is the period of creativity in which an individual innovation develops in expressivity, and expands; this period is followed in turn by one of standardization and petrification---which again brings about innovation and expressivity. Historical semantics offers us many parallels of the endless spiral movement in which words that have ceased to be expressive give way to others. (Spitzer 425)
εϡ˹#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ס ([2012-01-14-1]) #1219. ոϤʤब˭٤ ([2012-08-28-1]) Ǹ褦ʸѲȿѤλ۵롥Τ褦ˤ⡤ĤμθѲ1ĤθѤΤȤŪ褦Ȥؤָ롥
üԡʽġˤ "expressivity" ؤߵѲκܸȤƿƤʾ塤ɤạ́ʸΤ˶ؿȤϼԤäºݡSpitzer (428) ϡؤβϽפʽˡʸʡʸˡ줿ʸˡ̣Ǥ⤤Ƥ롥
Spitzer, Leo. "Why Does Language Change?" Modern Language Quarterly 4 (1943): 413--31.
Bloomfield, Leonard. "Secondary and Tertiary Responses to Language." Language 20 (1944): 45--55.
#2013. ꥢ (1) ([2014-10-31-1]) ڤӡ#2014. ꥢ (2) ([2014-11-01-1]) ǡؤʤɤˤĤƾҲ𤷤ꥢ (neolinguistics) ϡŪŤβˤĤŪͻԤη̤ȤƤγƹŪʬ᤹ۤ뤿κȾˤꤷפˡϿ˶Ū˼줿ʬۤ顤ѲνŤηϩɤ뤿μ³ؿˤʸ褦ȤΤǤ롥㤨С#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1]) Ȥ褦ʸ§Τ褦ʤΤǤ롥
ؤµ Matteo Giulio Bàrtoli 1925ǯ路 Introduzione alla neolinguistica 1Ϥˡ6Ĥθ§Ƥ롥ǰʤ饤ꥢθɤʤΤǡHall (274) ѤƼʤHall ϿؤȽŪΩäƤ뤳Ȥաˡ
1. Of two stages of linguistic development, the one attested earlier (quella ch'é documentata prima) is usually the older (3).
2. The earlier stage (fase anteriore) is usually preserved in the more isolated of two areas (area isolata) (3--6).
3. The stage attested in marginal areas (aree laterali) is usually the earlier stage, provided the central area (area di mezzo) is not the more isolated area (6--10).
4. The greater of two areas (area maggiore) usually preserves the earlier stage of development, provided the lesser area (area minore) is not the more isolated and does not consist of marginal areas (10--12).
5. The earlier stage of development is usually preserved in a 'later area' (area seriore) (13--15).
6. If one of two stages of development is obsolete or on its way out, it is usually the obsolete stage (fase sparita) which is the earlier (15--17).
Hall Ƚ˱ Bonfante (368) ˤС嵭34ǿƤ "marginal areas" ϥꥢ "aree laterali" ΤʱǤȤƤΤǡոƤ"laterali" ϡŪѸǤꡤ㤨 Castile δ餹 Catalonia Porgual "literali" Ǥȸ롥
ޤ "laterali" (marginal) ˸¤餺 "isolata" (isolated), "seriore" (later) ȤѸŪʤΤǤ뤳Ȥդ㤨СꥢϤѲ˴ؤƤ¦Ūʰ֤ˤäȤƤ⡤̤θѲ˴ؤƤ濴Ūʰ֤ˤȸ롥Ʊ褦ˡƱϰ褬ͻоݤȤʤäƤѲˤäƸΩŪ뤤ΩŪΤȤߤʤ줦뤷ȯŪ뤤ȯŪΤȤ줦롥
θ§ˤ "usually" Ȥ褦ˡθ§Ϥष㳰¸ߤѶŪǧǤθ§Ǥ롥ؼԼȤǤ褯ΤäƤ褦ˡġθϸġŪʬۤΤǤꡤ̤˼갷٤ΤǤ롥ʬۤβϡä6Ĥθ§˴ŤƳϤƤߤ뤬§ͽۤȿ¤С¤ͥ褷ƺƲߤȤΤǤ롥Bàrtoli ˤ嵭θ§ϡɡؼԤηи§ޤ줿ȾβȤƤȤ館Τ
Ϣơ#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1])#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1])#1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])#1053. Ⱦȵڸ̡ ([2012-03-15-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Hall, Robert A. "Bartoli's 'Neolinguistica'." Language 22 (1946): 273--83.
ḽѸ <nation> ֤ϡѸǤϼȤ <nacio(u)n> ֤Ƥ<nacio(u)> <nation> ѲϡŪˤϤʤġɤΤ褦ΤǤ첻 <ou> <o> ѲȡҲ <c> <t> Ѳʬƹͤɬפ롥
ޤ첻ѲˤĤƹͤ褦 (331) ˤȡ¯ƥˤ /o/ + ɡǽIJϡб Norman French η֤Ǥɡ첻û첻 /ʊ/ 뤤Ĺ첻 /uː/ βĸ줬ѸؼѤȡround, troumpe, count, nombre, countrefeten, countour, cuntree, counseil, commissioun, condicioun, nacioun, resoun, sesoun, religioun ʤɤ֤줿-<sioun> -<tioun> ȯϡб븽 -<sion> -<tion> ȯ /ʃ(ə)n/ ȤϰۤʤꡤޤƱ岽⤷Ƥ餺ʲ /siuːn/ ݤäƤȹͤ롥Ѹ줫ѸˤƤβ˶ʤʤäƤȡƱ岽Ϥޤꡤߤ /ʃ(ə)n/ ˶ŤƤäβĹ첻ֻ -<ioun> Ϥդ路ʤȴ졤1ʸȤ -<ion> ȤΤ̲롥
<ou> <o> Ѳñȯֻפ٤ΤǤȤɤϸڤ;Ϥ롥ˤ¿ʤȤ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) κѤäΤǤϤʤȤΤϡME nacioun nation ѲȤѲΤ첻ǤϤʤԤҲ <c> <t> ؤѲȤäǤ롥Upward and Davidson (97) ˤȡ
The letter C with the value /s/ before E and I in OFr had two main sources. One was Lat C: Lat certanus > certain. The other was Lat T, which before unstressed E, I acquired the same value, /ts/, as C had in LLat. Medieval Lat commonly alternated T and C in such cases: nacionem or nationem, whence the widespread use of forms such as nacion in OFr and ME. The C adopted in LLat, OFr and ME for classical Lat T has sometimes survived into ModE: Lat spatium > space; platea > place. Elsewhere, a later preference for classical Lat etymology has led to the restoration of T in place of C, as in the -TION endings: ModE nation.
Ĥޤꡤ<nacio(u)n> <nation> ˤ첻ѲҲѲ⡤ŵƥֻ˰פ٤ΤǤϤʤ
ֻѲġɤΤ褦ˤĤơ˥ѥѤĴƤߤޤ Helsinki Corpus äơη̤ʰʲθǤϡʣΤĤֻʤɤ˽äƤˡϾʤΤΡ16ѲλäȤ롥
| <nacion> (<nacioon>) | <nation> | |
|---|---|---|
| M2 (1250--1350) | 0 (1) | 0 |
| M3 (1350--1420) | 7 (1) | 0 |
| M4 (1420--1500) | 2 (0) | 0 |
| E1 (1500--1569) | 2 (0) | 2 |
| E2 (1570--1639) | 0 (0) | 13 |
| E3 (1640--1710) | 0 (0) | 14 |
| <nacion> | <nation> | |
|---|---|---|
| CEECS1 (1418--1638) | 2 | 12 |
| CEECS2 (1580--1680) | 1 | 27 |
| <nacion> | <nacioun> | <nation> | <natioun> | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1451--1500 (123,537 words) | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 1501--1550 (1,825,565 words) | 90 | 0 | 82 | 0 |
| 1551--1600 (6,648,588 words) | 64 | 0 | 947 | 13 |
| 1601--1650 (21,296,378 words) | 18 | 0 | 6,451 | 0 |
| 1651--1700 (38,545,254 words) | 11 | 0 | 22,350 | 1 |
| 1701--1750 (33,741 words) | 0 | 0 | 12 | 0 |
#157. foot ʣϤʤ feet ([2009-10-01-1]) ǡԵ§ʣ feet η֤ˤĤơi-mutation ޤϢβѲη̤Ȥ§ȤƱ feet ˸¤餺¾Ե§ʣ geese, lice, men, mice, teeth, women ˤƤϤޤ뤬ȡάʲΤ褦ʷаޤäȹͤƤ롥
(1) ޥĸ졧 *fōt- (sg.) / *fōt-iz- (pl.)
(2) ʣ i-mutation 롧 *fōt- (sg.) / *fēt-iz- (pl.)
(3) űѸޤǤ *-iz ü fōt- (sg.) / fēt- (pl.)
βΤˤϡѲξܺ٤ˤޤƧ߹ɬפ롥ä (3) *-iz üȤϡ겼ɬפ롥ȤΤϡ*-iz ξüˤꡤϲŪʰյʤä ō ē ΩŪô褦ˤʤäǤ롥
*-iz ξüϡ2Ĥβ쵤˾üΤǤϤʤ *z *i üȹͤƤ롥ޥĸǤϡfoot ϸ촴ȶδ֤첻ΤʤȤħȤ athematic ζޥפ°ʣʤȤ *-iz ̵ˤä *z ϡĸ *s ȼʤͭ Verner's Law νϤǤ (Campbell 398.2) *z ϡƱ岻δĶǸ˾üʤޥĸˤ a-stem Ѳޤˤʣʸ϶ *-ôs Ǥäᡤ*s ϼ뤳Ȥʤߤ˻ޤʣɸεǽô³Ƥ (Campbell 571) Ĥޤꡤfeet 㤨 stones Τɤä־ˤϡʣʸ˶ʤääΰ㤤ʵŪˤϡĸ°Ƥޥפΰ㤤ˤ˵뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ơ*z æȡϸ *i üˤ餵뤳ȤˤʤäűѸλˡμ岻ˤ첻 *i *u ϡľ˶ΤĹĶæ롤High Vowel Deletion ȸƤФ벻ѲǤ롥*fēti *i Ϥξ˹פƤæ뤳Ȥˤʤä (Campbell 345)
(3) Ǥϰ *-iz æȽҤ٤ºݤˤϾŤ줿ϢβѲϢˤäƽ緫æƤäΤǤ롥ɸΤ褦ʸѸΡѤʵפФƤǤ¤Τ뤿ˤϡɤޤǤˤ̤ʤФʤʤ
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
դˤϡformality Υ٥뤬¸ߤ롥ܸȤˤ⡤줬ǽŪ˸ŪʰʪդͽǤС㤨д˴ְ㤤Τʤ褦ĤʤɡʤդʧΤ̤Ǥ롥ŻҥʸϤʤɤǤϡʪϳʼ٤뤳Ȥ¿ӥͥʤŪŪʤζʸϤǤäƤæʤɤϷ褷ƾʤʤŪʥʸϤǤСʤæʤɤΩĤȤϡïиƤȤǤ롥ˡʬɤळȤΤʤ˺ϿʤɤǤϡʸˡƤꡤŬ˻Ȥäꤹ롥⤷ͤ˸졤äƤȻŦ줿ȤƤ⡤䤿ϤϸǤϤʤάʽˤʤȿʤդˤϡˡδȤ̤μȤơformality δγʼάȤ롥ϸѸǤƱǤ롥
Ѹˤֻɸಽȸ경塹ȿʹԤƤ17--18ˤ⡤ƱäֻˤϡȤ̤μȤ formality μ¸ߤƤAddison, Dryden, Swift, Johnson ʤʸͤϡ1ĤθꤷֻDZѸȤĥˡεϤΩ褦ȤϤޤǸŪʸϤ˸ꤵƤȤΤϡ修ʤɤǤϡɤ줿ֻˤѤƤǤ롥Swift ¾ͤμˤֻˤϸäˤ⤫餺 jail/gaol, hear/here/heer, college/colledge ʤɤɤƤJohnson ϼǤֻθ경ˤäŪʽʪǤ complete/compleet, pamphlet/pamflet, dos/do's/does ѰۤJohnson Ǥ顤修ˤƤä˸ˡɬפƤʤäΤǤ롥Horobin (157) ϡ17--18ˤ뤳ξˤĤơʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Rather being a marker of literacy or education, non-standard spellings in private letters seem to have been considered a marker of relative formality. These private spellings do not appear in printed works, which follow the accepted standard spelling conventions.
ξϡ¿쾯ʤ19ʹߡߤޤ³ƤȤäƤǤϤʤդˤĤƤϡˡ formality ꡤ뤤ϸȤƱƤϤʤʤȤȤ
ȤȤǤСԥ塼ǤΤȤ¿ʤäƤŪʥƤȤǤ顤ȾмưŪ˥ڥåѴʸʤɤΥåǽư褦ˤʤäƤĤƤϿǡȼԤäƤŪʥåǽߡԥ塼ˤäƻŪʽʪΰˤƤƤȤˡл뤹뵬ϼŪΩοͤˤȤäƤϡΤ褦ʼưåǽ¸ߤ˾ޤפΤ⤷ʤˡθȤ⤤뤫 Swift Johnson Ǥ顤ΤεϤβĤˤפΤǤϤʤפȤɬפˤʤΤϸŪʸ̮ˤƤǤꡤŪʸ̮ǤפⶵΤ©줷롥ȾưǺư륹ڥåѴظ˹Ƥ뼭βʤΤϤΤȾХ֥åܥåȤʤäƤǡˡפפƤȤȤϡͤƤߤ©줷Ф꤫鴶롥Swift Johnson θζ̤ϡƳQŪäƤΤ⤷ʤ
դؤοβȤˤĤƤϡ#1844. ɥĸ켰̾ƬʸѤϱѸˤ⤢ä (2) ([2014-05-15-1]) Ȥ줿
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
#49. /k/ θڥ ([2009-06-16-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡspeak / speech, wake / watch, match / make ʤɤΥڥˤ /k/ /ʧ/ θؤߤ롥ԤԤθ (palatalisation) ǤꡤűѸǤξϸùܴ֤Τߤʤ餺ִ֤ˤƤ§Ūб
㤨СѸư seek θűѸˤľˡߤζޤȡic sēċe, þū sēcst, hē/hēo/hit sēcþ, wē/ġē/hīe sēcaþ Ȥʤꡤ sēċan äˤäơ<ċ> /ʧ/ <c> /k/ ؤƤ뤳Ȥդ줿ȡѸ seek θҲ /k/ ϡ2;ñ3;ñʣζޤˤҲѤ褦ˤߤ롥ƬդϢ beseech (< OE besēċan) Ǥϡ1;ñζޤˤҲѤ褦ˤߤ롥
ǡseek beseech ˴ؤơˤưۤʤҲФɸಽΤȤ꤬롥űѸǻ褦ʲȶޤ teach (< OE tǣċan; cf. token for OE tācn) ˤƤϡ /ʧ/ Ф줿ȤͤȡȤ櫓 seek /k/ פ褦˻פ롥ºݡβȯãȤ *seech ȤʤϤäʸ Lancashire, Cheshire, Derbyshire ʤɤǤη֤ߤˡѸǤϡMED sēchen (v.) ˤСsechen seken ξʻ¸Ƥꡤޤ֤ɤƤѸˤʤä seek ̲褦طʤˤϡ/k/ ĸťΥɸη sœkja ¸ߤäΤǤϤʤȵ뤬ΤʤȤϤ狼ʤ
ʤѤ˴ؤƤ seek beseech ⶦ̤첻ؤȼѲγѤʬȤ (be)sought Ȥʤ롥
ε#2013. ꥢ (1) ([2014-10-31-1]) ˰³γɤξҲ𡥿ؤ1910ǯо줷Ƥ30;ǯвᤷΤȤؽѻ Language ˡǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ʸ Hall ˤ뿷ؤؤȽʸǺܤ줿Фơǯ3ܤʬ̤ʸϤˤꡤɤ Bonfante ػŪˤϤΥߥǤäܼɤȤ館뤨뤫Ȥ˴ؤȤʤäƤꡤɤͤ롥Ωϡ19 Schleicher Schmidt ΩʤȤ뤷ߤθؤȼҲؤΩˤʤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
ˤƤ⡤Hall ϤʤޤǶȽΤȻפ虜ʤ餤˿ؤƤ롥ȽʸκǽǤϡ"We have, in short, missed nothing by not knowing or heeding Bàrtoli's principles, theories, or conclusions to date, and we shall miss nothing if we disregard them in the future." (283) Ȥˤ٤ʤ
ؤäΩĴפȤθѤܼϡषȽԤǤ Hall (277) Ŭڤ˻ŦƤ롥εƤȹ碌̣ɤ줿
In a reaction against 19th-century positivism, Croce and his followers consider 'spirit' and 'spiritual activity' (assumed axiomatically, without objective definition) as separate from and superior to other elements of human behavior. Human thought is held to be a direct expression of spiritual activity; language is considered identical with thought; and hence linguistic activity derives directly from spiritual activity. As a corollary of this assumption, when linguistic change takes place, it is held to reflect change in spiritual activity, which must be the reflection of 'spiritual needs', 'creativity', and 'advance of the human spirit'. The most 'spiritual' part of language is syntax and style, and the least spiritual is phonology. Hence phonetic change must not be allowed to have any weight as a determining factor in linguistic change as a whole; it must be considered subordinate to and dependent on other, more 'spiritual' types of linguistic change.
Bonfante ˤ⡤Ʊ餤ŰŪǤ롥Bonfante ϡؤΩʱѸǡ˾ܽҤƤꡤȤ櫓ǯʸˡɤȤΰ㤤Ŧʤ餽ħ⤷ƤƤΤǡŪˤ餯Ǥ⥢䤹ؤγ1ĤȤʤäƤΤǤϤʤHall μĥΤ褯ޤȤ뤳ȤΤǡĤΰѤäƤ夨ʡ#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) εҤ⻲Ȥ줿
The neolinguists claim . . . that every linguistic change---not only phonetic change---is a spiritual human process, not a physiological process. Physiology cannot EXPLAIN anything in linguistics; it can present only the conditions of a given phenomenon, never the causes. (346)
It is man who creates language, every moment, by his will and with his imagination; language is not imposed upon man like an exterior, ready-made product of mysterious origin. (346)
Every linguistic change, the neolinguists claim, is . . . of individual origin: in its beginnings it is the free creation of one man, which is imitated, assimilated (not copied!) by another man, and then by another, until it spreads over a more-or-less vast area. This creation will be more or less powerful, will have more or less chance of surviving and spreading, according to the creative power of the individual, his social influence, his literary reputation, and so on. (347)
For the neolinguists, who follow Vico's and Croce's philosophy, language is essentially expression---esthetic creation; the creation and the spread of linguistic innovations are quite comparable to the creation and the spread of feminine fashions, of art, of literature: they are based on esthetic choice. (347)
The neolinguists, tho stressing the esthetic nature of language, know that language, like every human phenomenon, is produced under certain special historical conditions, and that therefore the history of the French language cannot be written without taking into account the whole history of France---Christianity, the Germanic invasions, Feudalism, the Italian influence, the Court, the Academy, the French Revolution, Romanticism, and so on---nay, that the French language is an expression, an essential part of French culture and French spirit. (348)
The neolinguists think, like Leonardo, Humboldt, and Àscoli, that languages change in most cases because of ethnic mixture, by which they understand, of course, not racial mixture but cultural, i.e. spiritual. In this spiritual sense, and only in this sense, the terms 'substratum', 'adstratum', and 'superstratum' can be admitted. (352)
Without a deep understanding of English mentality, politics, religion, and folklore, all of which the English language expresses, a real history of English cannot be written---only a shadow or a caricature thereof. (354)
The neogrammarians have shown, of course, even greater aversion to so-called loan-translations, which the neolinguists freely admit. For the neogrammarians, a word like German Gewissen or Barmherzigkeit is a perfectly good German formation, because all the phonetic and morphological elements are German---even tho the spirit is Latin. (356)
. . . even after the death of that 'last speaker', each of these languages [Prussian, Cornish, Dalmatian, etc.]---allegedly dead, like rabbits---goes on living in a hundred devious, hidden, and subtle ways in other languages now living . . . . (357)
It follows logically that because of their isolationistic conception of language, the neogrammarians, when they are confronted with two similar innovations in two different languages, will be inclined to the theory of polygenesis---even if the languages are contiguous and historically related, like German and French, or Greek and Latin. The neolinguists, on the other hand, without making a dogma of it, incline strongly toward monogenesis. (361)
ǸΰѤˤ褦ˡǯʸˡɤȿɤΩϸ쵯ˤޤǵڤǤꡤۤΤ̤ŰŪȿܤƤȤ狼롥
Hall, Robert A. "Bartoli's 'Neolinguistica'." Language 22 (1946): 273--83.
Bonfante, Giuliano. "The Neolinguistic Position (A Reply to Hall's Criticism of Neolinguistics)." Language 23 (1947): 344--75.
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