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2015-11-30 Mon

#2408. ץʸˤߤѰۤȻΤѲ [hieroglyph][grammatology][grapheme][alphabet][kanji][hiragana][katakana][speed_of_change][religion]

ѸܸλΤˤĤơŪѰ̻ۤŪѲ˴ؿäƤ롥ǤΤȤ emic ñ̡Ȥ etic ñ̤ؤ줾첻Ǥ (phoneme) Ȱ۲ (allophone) ΤǤ롥#2401. Ǥʸǡ ([2015-11-23-1]) ѸѤСʸ (grapheme) Ȱʸ (allograph) ȤäƤ褤
Ūˤߤơޥ󡦥ե٥åȡ̾ʤɤʸηϤˤΤѰۤѲϾʤʤäʸñ̤νϷ㤷ߤ줿ʽΤʬȯã⤷ФƤȤƣϺˡؾݷʸ٤ɤǤơץʸ (hieroglyph) ѰۤѲͼѲˤĤƤϤηǡͼȤ٤ˤ˶ä
ޤѰۤͼˤĤơޥ󡦥ե٥åȤܤʸˤƤϡ̾ѰۤϡɮμࡤΤ̡Ŀͤɮʤʤɤ˰¸ѰۤǤꡤٴŪ˵Ҥ줦ץʸǤϡŪȤŪ˵ҤΤΤ褦Ǥ롥ƣ (142) ˤȡ

ΥҥդϽ̱²ξݷʸΤʤǤäȤ⳨˶ᤤΤǡɤ٤路ʪ̤٤Ǥ뤫ȤबʤïˤǤɤ褦ˡʪĻä̤ꡤسԤϤޤäƤسԤΤʤǡפꤳޤ˼ʪ̤Ȥ⡤ޤñ˻ž夲뤳Ȥ⼫ͳǤäѲȤϡ礦λΤ褦ˡƱ̤Ħ䳨˻Ĥ路ʸ򤹤뤳Ȥˤʤä


ϡسԤϰǤ̤ǻѰۤƤȤŪǤ¿ʬ˴ޤݷʸʤǤϤΡðۤʻѰۤΤǤ롥
˻ΤѲˤĤơץʸϡŪʹΤοʸʥҥƥåhieraticˤ̱ʸʥǥƥådemotic) ȤʸηϤȤϻ¤Ǥ뤬켫ȤȼʸηϤȤ3000ǯʾĹˤ錄äơŪʻΤѲ뤳Ȥʤ¸³³ϡα󤯤ʤ褦ʡä٤ݼǤ롥ƱͤĹˤؤӤƤߤСȤʸηϤ3500ǯʾΤǥƥƥϢʤȷѤǤΤΡƻΤˤĤƤϸιùʸʸ顤俽ܴ˻ޤѲ뤲ƤץʸǤϤΤ褦ѲʤäȤΤǤ롥ˤĤơƣ (52--53) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

ʤηʤäΤǤȤѤϿǤ벦ŤΤǤäΤǡٷޤȡѲȤϿ瀆뤳Ȥ򶲤ѹ褦ȤʤäΤȤǤ벦ȤѹʤäΤǤ


ŪҡʵڤӸˤƤʬ¯Ūҡˤդ줿椨ˡΤѲʤäȤȤϳΤˤޤˡʤݷʸפǤ롥
ǤλϹꤷ俽ϡλΡλΤȤĹ餯ҿؤꡤΰФƸΰդˤޤǡθҤݤ³Ƥ롥ץʸ俽ˤϡĦʸäȤŦ褦ե٥åȤ䲾̾ˤϡޤǸҤդ뵡񤬤ʤäˡΤ⼫ͳãѲƤΤǤϤʤ
Ϣơ#753. ʤθϸŤᤫ ([2011-05-20-1]) ⻲ȡ

ƣ Ϻؾݷʸ١̼ҡҹ̼ҳؽʸˡӡ2012ǯ

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2015-11-29 Sun

#2407. margarine ȯ [spelling_pronunciation_gap][spelling][pronunciation][g]

ɸñϡ֥ޡפ̣뤬̾ȯ /ˌmɑːʤəˈriːn/ Ǥ롥<a> ֤ <g> /g/ ȯȤֻ̤§˽äơ2Ҳ /g/ Ȥȯ⳧̵ǤϤʤŪˤԵ§ /ʤ/ ȯ롥ˤޤֻȯбϡ<gaol> = /ʤeɪl/ ˤߤ뤬ˤĤƤϡ#94. gaol jail ([2009-07-30-1]) Dz⤷̤Ǥ롥Ǥϡ<margarine> = /ˌmɑːʤəˈriːn/ ˤϡɤͳΤ
θϡޥ륬ꥻɤȤʪɽ魯Ѹ margarin /ˈmɑːʤərɪn/ ͳ褹롥οˤʤǡꥷ márgaron (pearl) θ촴Ѥե󥹸 margarine ѸȤ ѸǤ margarin(e) η֤1821ǯѤ褦ˤʤä٤Ƥϥޥ륬ޤȤ򤫤顤1873ǯˡѷ margarine Ȥ֤ˤꡤˤʤ߿ޡؤ褦ˤʤä
ñˤĤƤ⡤OED ν (1905) ˤе§̤ /g/ äƤȤ1931ǯϱѸȤ /g/ ä Maggie Ann Ȥ˥å͡ǤƤФ褦ˤʤä20ᤤʳ顤 /ʤ/ ȯ⸽Ƥ1913ǯ˽Ǥ줿 Phonetic Dict. Eng. Lang. (Ed. H. Michaelis and D. Jones) ˤȡǤ˥ޥʡȯȤ /ʤ/ ԤƤ褦Ǥ롥ޤ1922ǯˤϡά marge /ʤ/ ȤѤ줿Ȥθڤ⤢롥θ20Ⱦˤϡ /g/ ϤޤȤʤꡤ/ʤ/ ŪȤʤä
/g/ /ʤ/ ִطʤˤϡ餯͡װؤäƤ롥رѸ츻ŵ٤Ǥ margin ʤɤȤϢۤȤʤ顤ͤȤ Margaret -- Margery, Margie ʤɤΰη˴Ϣ /g/ /ʤ/ θؤˤڤǤ롥餯񵭤ȲΤߺѤƯθĤβǺƱΤȻפ롥ơǽŪˤդ򳫤Ƥߤ顤<g(a)> /ʤ/ бȤ̤ȤʤäƤȤȤ񵭤ȲߺѤȤˤĤƤϡ#894. shortening ʬ (2) ([2011-10-08-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Referrer (Inside): [2015-12-25-1]

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2015-11-28 Sat

#2406. metonymy [metonymy][metaphor][terminology][semantics][semantic_change][rhetoric][cognitive_linguistics]

#2187. ΰ̣᥿եǤ ([2015-04-23-1]) ǥ᥿ե (metaphor) ˤĤƲ⤷Фȥ˥ߡ (metonymy) ˤĤƤϡƽǿʤ⡤⤹뵡񤬤ʤäΤǡLuján (291--92) ʤɤ˵ʤ餳ǾҲ𤷤
ŪʽؤǤϡִȡפȤΤƤǯǧθؤ̣ǤϲʸΤޤޡ֥ȥ˥ߡפȸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿Ѹϡꥷ metōnimía (change of name) ̤롥ʽŪܤС᥿ե2 (similarity) ˴ŤΤФơȥ˥ߡ2 (contiguity) ˴ŤȤ롥᥿եǤϡ2Ϥ줾ۤʤɥᥤ (domain) °Ƥ뤬餫ˤäξԤФ롥ȥ˥ߡǤϡ2ƱΥɥᥤ°ƤꡤDz餫ˤäξԤФ롥̩˶̤ǤΤȤŪʵ⤢ΤΡ̤ϤǤ褤 (cf. #2196. ޥåȤγˤ metaphor metonymy Ʊ ([2015-05-02-1]))
ȥ˥ߡܼʤˤϡ͡ʼब롥ʬΡä (synecdoche) ȸƤФˡƴơʪʡ֤ȽȤˤʪȷ̤ʤɡ餫ͭŪʴطС٤ƥȥ˥ߡμȤʤ롥äợѰۤѲˤơܶʲǤ롥֤䤫ʨƤפȤȤΡ֤䤫פƴƴ˴ޤޤֿפ̣롥glass ֥饹פȤؤκǤǤʤǤ֥饹פ̣롥ƥ sexta (sixth (hour)) Ϥ֤ɽ路ƤΥڥȯŸ siesta Ϥλ֤ˤȤ̣褦ˤʤäֱĮפ Capitol Hill Ͼ̾줾ּ괱šפȡƹIJפ̣롥µǨ餹פȤ֤ϵ㤯Ȥ԰٤η̤Ǥ뤳Ȥ顤ֵ㤯פ̣褦ˤʤäcount one's beads Ȥˤơ beads ϡֵפ̣βΤ˥ꥪο̤äƤȤ顤beads ֿ̡פΤΤ̣褦ˤʤäϡʪˡ§˴Ť̴طʸˤ˶¸λ˻ޤǡ餫ͭŪʴطΩȤǡϰϤ
Saeed (365--66) ꡤѸ줫ŵṲ̄˵󤲤褦

PART FOR WHOLE (synecdoche): All hands on deck.
WHOLE FOR PART (synecdoche): Brazil won the world cup.
CONTAINER FOR CONTENT: I don't drink more than two bottles.
MATERIAL FOR OBJECT: She needs a glass.
PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT: I'll buy you that Rembrandt.
PLACE FOR INSTITUTION: Downing Street has made no comment.
INSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE: The Senate isn't happy with this bill.
PLACE FOR EVENT: Hiroshima changed our view of war.
CONTROLLED FOR CONTROLLER: All the hospitals are on strike.
CAUSE FOR EFFECT: His native tongue is Hausa.

Luján, Eugenio R. "Semantic Change." Chapter 16 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum International, 2010. 286--310.
Saeed, John I. Semantics. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

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2015-11-27 Fri

#2405. ֻȯЪΥ --- ѸֻԵ§μŪװ [spelling_pronunciation_gap][spelling][pronunciation][writing][orthography][hel_education][alphabet][link][grahotactics]

ѸˤֻȯЪΥˤĤƤϡspelling_pronunciation_gap ¿εǼ夲ƤȤ櫓ŪװˤĤƤϡ#62. ʤ֤ȯЪΥƤ椯Τ ([2009-06-28-2]) ǤޤȤ᤿ϱѸֻˤĤƸԵ§μȡ줬ŪװܤƴϢվ񤭤ƹϡϢ뵭Υ󥯤ˤ夨롥

Ե§ظˤ

(1) ե٥åȤɽʸηϤɸ֤Ƥʾ1ʸ1פ٤ (see #1024)
(2) ֻ§㳰٤餺 (see #503)
(3) 1ĤñФ1Ĥηޤäֻ٤Ȥˡ (orthographyˤȯ (see ##53,54,194)

Ե§μ ]

(1) 1ĤʸˤФʣβ: <o> ɽ蘆벻ϡ<gh> ɽ蘆벻ϡ (see ##210,1195)
(2) 1ĤβФʣʸ: /iː/ ɽ魯ʸˤϡ/k/ ɽ魯ʸˤϡ (see #2205)
(3) ۻ (silent_letter): climb, indict, doubt, imbroglio, high, hour, marijuana, know, half, autumn, receipt, island, listen, isthmus, liquor, answer, plateaux, randezvous
(4) ֲθ: city/cities, swim/swimming, die/dying (see #1284)
(5) ֻΥꥨ: color/colour, center/centre, realize/realise, jail/gaol (see #94)

Ե§Ūװ ]

(1) ѸϡηϤΰۤʤƥɽΤ˺Ŭ줿ޥ󡦥ե٥åȤȤʸηϤڤꤿ (see ##423,1329,2092)
(2) Ѹϡ줫äȤȤֻηϤޤǼѤ (see #2162)
(3) ֻɸ礯Ѹֻ; (see ##562,1341,1812)
(4) ƻν̤νռʸˡ (graphotactics) (see ##91,223,446,1094,2227,2235)
(5) 츻Ūֻ (see etymological_respelling)
(6) ɽɽؤή (see ##1332,1386,1760,2043,2058,2059,2097,2312,2344)
(7) ϤҤѲ뤬ʸݼŪ (see ##15,2292)
(8) ֻɸಽδ֤ΰ (see ##1902,297,871,312)
(9) Ѽֻ֤֡ꥨ (see #ame_bre spelling)
(10) ֻפ񤷤 (see spelling_reform)

򵿤ɬ

(1) ե٥åɽʸηϤñɽ뤿ˤȤ߹碌ñ̤ǤֻɽŪǤ
(2) 1ĤñФ1Ĥηޤäֻ٤Ȥˡȯۤϡ¿θˤƶʹߤħŪʹͤǤ (see #2392)
(3) ֻ§ˤ㳰¿ġ㳰¿Ū

̾ ϡرѸʸ֤ꡦȯΤߡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.

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2015-11-26 Thu

#2404. <nacio(u)n> <nation> ֻѲ (2) [etymological_respelling][spelling][spelling_reform][consonant][latin][emode]

#2018. <nacio(u)n> <nation> ֻѲ ([2014-11-05-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥnation Ȥ1ñˤȤɤޤ餺̤˥ƥ -tiō ̤ĸäֻѸ -<cion> Ѹ -<tion> ؤѲܤ롥
εǼ褦ˡ <c> <t> Ѳϸ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ȹͤ롥츻Ūֻϡ٤෿ǤΤΡƤϤĤθˤñȯŪΤǤꡤηŪʸݤǤϤʤΤʤǤƥ -tiō 򻲾Ȥ <c> <t> ѲϤ褽§Ū褦Ǥꡤ٤ˤưռŪäȤ롥§ŪǰռŪäȤȤϡˤФѲֻ (spelling_reform) ̤äȸʤʤѸֻפˤˤơ¿ʤȤߤ Noah Webster ΤΤ餤ʤʤȤƤޤʬŪˤȸ뤬Ѹ <c> <t> Ϥ⤦1Ĥ㳰ŪȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
Venezky (38) ϡ-<tion> Τߤʤ餺 -<tial> ޤơѲˤĤưʲΤ褦˿Ƥ롥

. . . a number of graphemic substitutions, introduced mostly between the times of Chaucer and Shakespeare, must be treated separately. One of these is the substitution of t for c in suffixes like tion and tial, e.g., nation, essential (cf. ME, nacion, essenciall). Early Modern English scribes, instilled with the fervor of classical learning, brought about in these substitutions one of the few true spelling reforms in English orthographic history.


Venezky, Richard L. The Structure of English Orthography. The Hague: Mouton, 1970.

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2015-11-25 Wed

#2403. Leitner ˤѸѼΥǥ [variety][world_englishes][model_of_englishes][lingua_franca]

ˤѸʤνѼˤʬۤ򤤤ª뤫ȤˤĤơmodel_of_englishes 濴Ȥơ¿εƤε#2402. polycentric language (2) ([2015-11-24-1]) ˤƾҲ𤷤 Clyne Ԥʸ Pluricentric Languages ΤʤˡѸ򰷤ä Leitner ˤʸä顤Leitner ήαѸѼǥҲ𤷤Leitner (225--26) ϡαѸѼʬहˤäơ4Ĥζ (tensions) ǰƬ֤Ƥ롥

Firstly, diffusion from the former (British or American) parent varieties. It emphasizes linguistic continuity and represents the substratum or "variety base", so to speak. The second, complementary tension is nativization, triggered largely by social, cultural, and environmental demands. A linguistic response is found by either language and dialect mixing and recasting the base input, i.e. the dialects of settlers, or, alternatively, by the resources of L1-languages. The third element is the independent creation of linguistic forms in learner and/or pidgin type situations. This may, but need not, lead to unsystematic differences between varieties of English. And, finally, the growing pressures from similar needs in all societies, which are reinforced by the possibilities of technology and communications (maritime trade, E-mail, FAX, TV, tourism etc.). They will lead to viable, but geographically non-contiguous socio-economic entities and communication networks. They are predominantly urban and demographically multiethnic.


üŪˤޤȤС(1) Ū˱ƶ礭ʱѼˤĤ(2) ϤǤȼѼȯã(3) ؽԡԥѸüԤˤ뿷Ѽβǽ(4) ̸Ȥƿ͡ζͭˡ˴ŤѸѡȤȤˤʤθˤĤܤ٤ϡä (2), (3), (4) ˤĤѼȯãȤư֤ѥ᡼ȤȤ߹ޤƤ뤳ȡ "geographically non-contiguous", "predominantly urban and demographically multiethnic" Ȥ褦ˡŪ¦̤ĴƤ뤳ȤŪʡ#217. ѸüԤƱߥǥ ([2009-11-30-1]) ˤ衤ŪǶΡ#272. ݸȤƤαѸüԤʬ뿷ǥ ([2010-01-24-1]) #1106. Modiano Ʊߥǥ (2) ([2012-05-07-1]) ˤ衤ΥǥϤϰȤƤ褦˻פ롥Leitner ǥϡ󤫤鼫ͳˤʤäƤǡŪŪΤ褦˻פ롥
4Ĥζ֤ǰƬ֤ʤ顤Leitner (226) ϡαѸѼ "three levels" 礭ΤǤϤʤ󵯤Ƥ롥

The first one is the (new) core or Common Norm, which holds largely for all NL, SL, and FL varieties. Secondly, there are typological clusters of southern/northern and of British- and American-influenced NL, which partially shape SL varieties. And, finally, there are the individual "Englishes".


üŪˤޤȤȡ(1) ɸѸȸƤӤѼ(2) ˡ١Ѽﷲ(3) ġѼȤȤˤʤ롥#426. ѸѼΥԥߥåɥǥ ([2010-06-27-1]) ˶ᤤǥȤȤˤʤ뤬ظˡҤΤ褦ŪưŪȯۤ뤳ȤŦƤ

Leitner Gerhard. "English as a Pluricentric Language." Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Ed. Michael Clyne. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 179--237.

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2015-11-24 Tue

#2402. polycentric language (2) [sociolinguistics][variety][dialect]

#2384. polycentric language ([2015-11-06-1]) ˰³ʣ濴ĸ (polycentric, or pluricentric, language) ˤĤơΥơޤʸԤ Clyne (1) ϡܤνϤˤơΤ褦ʸħ򼡤Τ褦˸ɽƤ롥

The term pluricentric was employed . . . to describe languages with several interacting centres, each providing a national variety with at least some of its own (codified) norms. Pluricentric languages are both unifiers and dividers of peoples. They unify people through the use of the language and separate them through the development of national norms and indices and linguistic variables with which the speakers identify. They mark group boundaries . . . indicating who belongs and who does not. National varieties may be seen as symbols of suppressed potential language conflict as the development of a distinct Ausbau language has not gone ahead . . . .


pluricentric language ȤϡҲŪˤϡʣθѼ«פǤ⤢ꡤѼۤʤΤȤƶ̤ʬ֤Ǥ⤢ȤȤˤʤ롥ѼġΩ¸ߤǧĤĤ⡤«ͤ褦ȤտޤޤǰȤ⤤뤷ȿФˡ1ĤθȤκۤ򤷤Ƥ뤬ˤΩͤѼ郎ʣ뤳Ȥ򼨺복ǰȤ⤤롥εǤҤ٤褦ˡѼθ¤̤ѸǤʾˡΤ褦ʸ¤򤤤˲ᡦɾ뤫ȤѸ˶ᤤΤǤϤʤ
ͤͤȡɤΤȤѼ (variety) ȤϲζϲȤ䤤˹Ԥ夤Ƥޤ褦˻פ롥ѼˤĤƤϡ#1373. variety Ȥϲ ([2013-01-29-1])#415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1])#2116. ֱѸפεۣ ([2015-02-11-1])#2243. ʥѸȤϲ ([2015-06-18-1])#2282. ʥѸȤϲ (2) ([2015-07-27-1])#2265. ѼȤϸѲηϩꤷեǤ ([2015-07-10-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ʤClyne Ǥϡpluricentric languages ʤθˤȤơʲθ줬夲Ƥ롥Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, Tamil, Swedish, German, French, English, Korean, Arabic, Chinese, Armenian, Serbo-Croatian, Hindi-Urdu, Malay, Pacific Pidgin Englishes, Macedonian.

Clyne, Michael. "Pluricentric Languages --- Introduction." Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Ed. Michael Clyne. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 1--9.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-02-06-1] [2015-11-25-1]

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2015-11-23 Mon

#2401. Ǥʸ [phonology][phoneme][grammatology][grapheme][writing][double_articulation][sign][semiotics][terminology]

Ф餯δ֡ʸ (grapheme) ȤϲȤͤƤ롥ˤ벻 (phoneme) ˤʤ館ơʸˤʸǤꤹȤȤϡ٤θˤ롥ΤξԤˤʿŪ˹ͤ⾯ʤʤΤȽ񵭸ϺŪΰۤʤȤꡤȤʤƤᤤʳǤĤޤΤǤ롥
ΥϡǤ2ʬ (double_articulation) §񵭸Ǥ1ʬᤳǧΤΡ2ʬǤդǤȤˤȹͤƤ롥1ʬǤȤɤɽʸʤ뤤ɽʸˤȤʤꡤʿŪ2ʬޤǿʤɽʸñʸˤȤʤ롥
դλϺ夸äͤƤȤơ̤ϲǤʸǤˤĤʿԤȤƤߤPulgram ʰäƤƤΤǡƸʲP(honeme) G(rapheme) оȤǤ롥

P1The smallest distinctive audible units of a dialect are its phonemes.G1The smallest distinctive visual units of an alphabet are its graphemes.
P2A phoneme is a class of articulated speech sounds pertaining to one dialect.G2A grapheme is a class of written characters pertaining to one alphabet.
P3The hic et nunc spoken realization of a phoneme is an articulated speech sound or phone.G3The hic et nunc written realization of a grapheme is a written alphabet character or graph.
P4The number of phonemes in each dialect must be limited, the number of phones cannot be.G4The number of graphemes in each alphabet must be limited, the number graphs cannot be.
P5By definition, all phones identifiable as members of one phoneme are its allophones.G5By definition, all graphs identifiable as members of one grapheme are its allographs.
P6The phonetic shape of an allophone is dependent on its producer and on its phonetic surroundings.G6The graphic shape of an allograph is dependent on its producer and on its graphic surroundings.
P7Phones which are not immediately and correctly identifiable as belonging to a certain phoneme when occurring in isolation, may be identified through their meaning position in a context.G7Graphs which are not immediately and correctly identifiable as belonging to a certain grapheme when occurring in isolation, may be identified through their meaningful position in a context.
P8Dialects are subject to phonemic change and substitution.G8Alphabets are subject to graphemic change and substitution.
P9The number, kind, and distribution of phonemes varies from dialect to dialect.G9The number, kind, and distribution of graphemes varies from alphabet to alphabet.


Pulgram ʸϲǤʸǤʿ򰷤äΤǤ롥ϡ¤ϤäƤʿ򼨤餫ˤʤΤǤϤʤȤԤäơʸɤǤߤΤԳäͣݤ˻ĤäΤϡp. 19 μ1ʸΤߤǤ롥

If today we distinguish between letter (or better grapheme) and speech sound (or better phoneme), the reason is that there has hardly ever existed in any language with some tradition of writing a strictly one to one ratio between the two.


Pulgram ϡǤʸǤʿ˵ŤƤʤ⡤̤鰷Ȥ򤱤ΤǤϤʤȤʤǤʤ

Pulgram, Ernst. "Phoneme and Grapheme: A Parallel." Word 7 (1951): 15--20.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-12-21-1] [2015-11-30-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-11-22 Sun

#2400. ԥȥβǽ (2) [grammatology]

ε#2399. ݷʸǯɽ ([2015-11-21-1]) ǡֳʸפŪ˸̩ʰ̣ǤʸǤϤʤȤ˿줿γʸȤС#2244. ԥȥβǽ ([2015-06-19-1]) ǿ줿ԥȥबŪܤ򽸤Ƥ롥ξʸˤδͤƤߤȤ⤷
ƣ (28) ϡǯ̥ԥȥκưߤƤơΤʤʸץȾݷʸʥҥաˤ˻ƤΤǶäȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ξǡ֤Τ褦ʸ¤ϿʸνȯǤäãǤϤʤפȻŦƤ̣ϳʸæ餷ơεǽŪʸȯãƤ櫓Ǥ뤬ߤˤʤäơ֤ꤷơʸ˾äȤƥȤ٤ʸʤƤΤǤ롥ƣ (29) ϡ³롥

ܤˤ褯դ볨ʸȤƸɸ롥ɥ饤СϻҤɤäƤ볨򸫤С˳عΤΤäդƱžʤФʤʤؼ֤γ򸫤СƧڤΤΤäդʤФʤʤԤ˶ŤȡͻΤ礭ʳʸʥݥˤܤ롥̤ȯãˤĤơͤӤȤϹ®٤äƤ֤˺뤫뤫ִ֤ˤʤФʤʤȤ¿ʤΤǡʸҲˤ⤳μγʸϤ褤¿뤳Ȥˤʤ


ʹ֤ϡʸȯãƥԡɼҲ߽ФľŪִŪ˥ߥ˥ɬפ졤Ṳ̄ʤ1ĤǤ⸶ŪȤ볨ʸǤ뤳Ȥ˵ŤȤȤ
ߡ͡ԥȥ˴ԤƤϡ嵭Τ褦ľŪߥ˥Ǥʤɤۤݥߥ˥Ǥ롥γʸˤĤƤ⡤ȯưŤ1ĤϡϤ꼫ΰտޤ¾ͤȤȤäϤơ¾ͤʬȰۤʤüԤäȤǽ⡤ä˸פʤɤˤƤϡä
Τ褦˹ͤȡʸϤˤ̤ƴ¿η塤ǽѲ뤲ƤˤϤʤܼŪϸ餫鸽ߤ˻ޤѤäƤʤΤǤϤʤȤפ롥ǯΥԥȥβǽȯȤϡʳʸܼκǧȤ٤⤷ʤ

ƣ Ϻؾݷʸ١̼ҡҹ̼ҳؽʸˡӡ2012ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-11-21 Sat

#2399. ݷʸǯɽ [grammatology][timeline][hieroglyph][link]

ݷʸ (hieroglyph) ϡʳγʸ (pictogram) ȯãȹͤ롤ʸ̾ͤ븶ʸǤ롥ʸθñ̤бƤ餺̩ˤпʸȤϤʤäơֳʸפȤƾΤΤΤμ̷ޤǤ롥ݷʸθñ̡ʺǽʸˤƤŵŪ˸ˤбƤ롤βΡɤߡפäƤ롤ȤߤΤǤ롥ݷʸ⡤¿ʤȤάƤȤϤ˻ʪ򤫤ɤäǤȤǡɤʸȶ̤뤬εεǽϳʸȷŪ˰ۤʤ뤳Ȥդ
ŵŪʾݷʸȤơҥ (hieroglyph) ȾΤ륨ץʸ褯ΤƤ롥ξܺ٤٤ʻϤޤ˳Ȥˤդ路η֤3000ǯĹˤ錄äƤۤȤѲƤʤȤ顤̤ˡֳʸפȾΤ뤬嵭餹ȳʸǤϤʤäʸݷʸȾΤ٤Ǥ롥ʸϤΤ褦ŵŪʾݷʸǤ뤳Ȥ顤Ѹ hieroglyph ϥץʸ˸¤餺᡼ܸʸùʸʤɤޤơ˾ݷʸ̣ȤʤäƤ롥
ʲƣ (250--51) ǯɽȤˡݷʸ (hieroglyph) 򼨤

 ץȡɡ쥢Φ
  ԻԹȤΩ3300  
     
 ץ첦īλϤޤꡤҥդλϤޤ3100᡼ݷʸλϤޤ3100  
3000    
     
     
 ץȸŲ2700--2200   
  ܸʸλϤޤ2600  
   ʸʸλѡ2500--1500 
  åɲ2350--2150  
     
     
     
2000ץ沦2000--1800ˡ쥿ʸ2000--1450   
     
   ֲī18--1050 
 ʸA1700--1450ˡեȥס17Хӥ˥1830--1530  
 ץȿ1570--1090ʥʸ16  
  ҥåȾݷʸ1500--700ˡҥå1460--1200  
 󥢥ƥνס1370ˡʸB14--12 ùʸ14--11 
  ҥದʸ13  
   ī塤1120--256ˤΤȤ˶ʸλ 
     
1000 åꥢ1000--612  
     
     
 ǥƥåλϤޤ700ˡץȡī663--525   
  ڥ륷6溢--330  
     
 ץȡץȥޥī323--30   
   221--206ˤ˾信ʤդĤˤ俽ˤλϤޤ 
     
1 ܸʸν1  
    
 ץʸλϤޤ200 ܴʺδˤλϤޤʸ200ˡʸܤˤĤ200 
     
 ҥդκǸ394   
 ǥƥåκǸ452   
    ޥʸޥʸλѡ6--10
     
     
     
     
1000    
     
    ƥʸƥʸλѡ1220--1521
    1400--1533
     
     
     
     
 ݥꥪ󤬥ҥդɡ1822ƥեȤܸʸɡ1802ˡ󥽥ܸʸɡ1835ùʸȯ1899 
 ʥʸȯ1904--05ˡȥꥹʸB   
2000    


ʸˤˤĤƤϡʲε򻲾ȡ

#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])
#1822. ʸη ([2014-04-23-1])
#1834. ʸǯɽ ([2014-05-05-1])
#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1])
#1853. ʸη (2) ([2014-05-24-1])
#2389. ʸηϤεȯã (1) ([2015-11-11-1])
#2390. ʸηϤεȯã (2) ([2015-11-12-1])
#2398. ʸη (3) ([2015-11-20-1])

ƣ Ϻؾݷʸ١̼ҡҹ̼ҳؽʸˡӡ2012ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-11-20 Fri

#2398. ʸη (3) [grammatology][family_tree][flash][mindmap]

ʸηޤϤǤ #423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1])#1822. ʸη ([2014-04-23-1])#1834. ʸǯɽ ([2014-05-05-1])#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1]) ǤƤƤ˴ؤޤϡԤοȤäƤǤϤʤ
줽ΤΤηط򼨤ޤ⡤͡ŪޤǤ뤬ʸηޤϤ񤷤㤨С1446ǯ˿͹ŪˡʤäƶˤƹŪˡϺ졤ī4ˤäơַ̱פ̾Ǹۤ줿ϥ󥰥ϡ߽Ф줿ʸηϤǤȤǡ礿ŪʸηϤΤˤ°ʤϤǤ롥ϺˤäƼޤ򻲹ͤȤĤġȥե٥åȤʤɤ饤󥹥ԥ졼ϰƤ줿ǽ⤤Ȥмषơ¿ηޤǤϡηϢʤΤȤɽ뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤ롥ºݤΤȤΥ󥹥ԥ졼󤬲äΤϷꤷޤԤԤο¬¿ʬ˴ޤޤƤ롥ܸβ̾ϡŪȯãǤ뤳ȤʸŪʸŪˤʤΤ˳ΤᤦΤǡ޾塤ΤȤϢͤƤʤʸηϤˤäơΤ褦ŪȯãγΤ˺뤿ˡԤˤäưۤʤޤΤǤ롥
ơǺϡʸοŵ (p. 5) ʸޤȤˡޥɥޥå˲ѤΤ򼨤ޤ򥯥å뤤ϡΡɤĤǤFLASH ɤʤ䤹뤿ʤɤäƤΤǡŵۤɤο٤ϤʤȤˡڤʻѤȤƤΤѤ򤪴ꤤޤ
ʸηޡʡʸοŵǤѤΡ

ʸοŵǡ١ʸԡˡʸۡ2009ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-11-19 Thu

#2397. ͭ̾ȿ̾̾ [onomastics][toponymy][anthropology][fetishism]

ͭ̾ϸݤȤϡů˳ؤˤפǤ롥ͭ̾ȡʳθȤϡ¿ۤʤ롥#2212. ͭ̾ϥ˥եʤ˥եǤ ([2015-05-18-1]) Ǥ⿨줿褦ˡޤͭ̾ˤϰ̣ʤͭ̾줬äƤΤϰ̣ǽǤϤʤޤǻؼǽˤȤɤޤäƤ롥ͭ̾ϡŪˤߤȳͲˤϽäƤ뤬̻ŪˤߤȲŪʽ뤳Ȥ㤨СѸ̾ʤɤֻȯΥƤ٤ϡ̤θǤϤʤ (ex. Silverstone /silsn/) ¤줵줿ˤ餫ä֤ߤǤƤ뤳Ȥʤ椨˶Ūˤʬǽ̵̣ȤʤΤΤ褦ˡͭ̾줬¾θब̤ˤäƤפ礤ƤΤϡ䤬ְ̣פ뤳ȤǤϤʤֻؼפ뤳ȤòƤ뤫ʤΤ
ǤϡΤ褦ʸͭ̾ɬפȤѤꤹüԤʹ֤ϡޤǤƲֻؼפΤ塤ʹ֤ؼΤɽʤϡʹ֤ȾȤȤΤ褦ʸˤäơĤˤäơʳλʪФƥեȤ⤤۾ʴؿ򼨤ơȤͭ̾ǻؼȤȤ⤢뤫⤷ʤġοʹ֤ȾˤĤƴ̵ؿȤʸϤʤźθˤƿ̾̾Ȥͭ̾줬Ū˸뤳Ȥ顤ǧᤶ򤨤ʤΤ褦ʹ֤Ū˲˴ؿäƤ뤫򼨺פʴѻǤ롥Coates (315) ۩

Personal names appear to be the prototypical names, as all humans have overwhelming interest (1) in being able to refer conversationally to other humans with the expectation of uniquely identifying them in context, and (2) in catching the attention of other humans individually. Accordingly, personal names typically have both a referential and a vocative function. Their fundamental nature is also seen in the way they are applicable to other categories of individual, for instance animals. Places gain significance because we all move and act in space, so they gain significance through the way(s) in which they fit into human perceptions of landscape, townscape and starscape, which is what governs their naming. Other categories of object may bear proper names, and the more intimately associated with human activity a type of object is, the more readily it seems able to acquire a proper name, though the systematic application of names to other categories is quite rare, and the degree of intimacy with which something is felt to be associated with human activity may vary from culture to culture.


Ϣͭ̾ˤĤƤϡonomastics γƵȤ櫓#2212. ͭ̾ϥ˥եʤ˥եǤ ([2015-05-18-1])#1184. ͭ̾첽 (1) ([2012-07-24-1])#1185. ͭ̾첽 (2) ([2012-07-25-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Coates, Richard. "Names." Chapter 6 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 312--51.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-11-18 Wed

#2396. ե󥹸줫ζμѤФ뿵 [french][loan_translation][borrowing][contact][phraseology][ormulum][old_norse][phrasal_verb]

#2351. ե󥹸줫ζưμѡ ([2015-10-04-1]) Ⱥε#2395. ե󥹸줫ζμѡ ([2015-11-17-1]) ˤ褦ˡѸѸ˥ե󥹸ñΤߤʤ餺ɽѤƤȼĥƤμĥФƿŤΩԤ⤤롥1ͤ Sypherd Ǥ롥Sypherd ϥե󥹸ˡĥ Sykes ˤʸ French Elements in Middle English (1899) 򸷤ȽŸ
Sypherd οʤǤ롥Sykes ե󥹸αƶȻŦƤѸζɽ¿Sykes μ夲Ƥʸᤤ˽񤫤줿 Ormulum ˸Ƥ뤳Ȥ򡤼¾Ū˼ΤǤ롥Ormulum ϡEast Midland 1200ǯ˽񤫤줿ȤĹʽǡŪˤŪˤե󥹸αƶʤȤƥȤǤ롥ΥƥȤϡषťΥɸθŪƶ򶯤ΤȤΤƤ롥ǡSypherd (6--7) ϡSykes Τ֥ե󥹸ˡפȤϡषťΥɸˡȤͤΤǤϤʤȡռ롥

Now, if in the Ormulum, a poem free from French influence, these phrases which Mr. Sykes ascribes to the Old French occur with considerable frequency, we are surely justified in denying the overwhelming French phrasal influence on Middle English. Furthermore, the justification of this denial is strengthened when we find that in Old-Norse literature anterior to or contemporary with Orm there exist in comparative abundance many of the identical phrases found in the Ormulum and in other Middle-English literature. And finally, though I do not urge it, the probability of considerable Old-Norse phrasal influence on Orm demands consideration, especially if we bear in mind the following facts: (1) the marked Old-Norse influence in general on Orm; (2) the Old-Norse literature in which these phrases occur in homiletic, sermonic; (3) much of the literature antedates the Ormulum.


Sypherd ϤθʸΤʤǡťΥɸʸαѸθˡˤ褽бɽФơ󼨤Ƥ椯оݤȤʤäΤ "bear witness", "take baptism", "take flesh, humanity", "take death", "take example", "take heed, take keep, take ȝeme", "take end", "take wife", "take rest", "take cross" ưǤꡤɬ¿ʤ㼨ΤȤФϤ롥
εǤҤ٤褦ˡμѤ¾ڤ뤳ȤϰƳ񤷤Sypherd ⡤ʸɸ崶ȤƤϡե󥹸줫μѤȤ⤽ΤΤԤȽƤ褦ʹ뤬餯ĥΤϡΤ褦ˤϿŤ˸礦٤Ǥꡤ̤βǽθ٤Ǥ롤ȤȤ

Sypherd, W. Owen. "Old French Influence on Middle English Phraseology." Modern Philology 5 (1907): 85--96.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-10-27-1] [2020-03-27-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-11-17 Tue

#2395. ե󥹸줫ζμ [french][loan_translation][borrowing][contact][phraseology][proverb][methodology]

#2351. ե󥹸줫ζưμѡ ([2015-10-04-1]) ȴϢơPrins ʸ "French Influence in English Phrasing" Ҳ𤹤롥Prins Ϥʸǡե󥹸αƶꤵѸɽ¿뤳Ȥ˭٤ʶ󤲤ʤĥ롥Prins θդ򤽤Τޤ޼ڤȡ". . . besides the numerous isolated words which English has borrowed from French, there are also a great many cases in which complete phrases and turns of speech, proverbs and proverbial sayings were taken over from French and incorporated in the English language" (28) ȤȤǤ롥
ʸȾϡե󥹸ȱѸʸ齸᤿ʸ̮ĤбɽꥹȤǤ롥ܵǤϡΰƸΤϹPrins ȤƻŦƤ3󤹤ˤȤɤ᤿1ܤϡե󥹸ͳܤѸζ硦ɽ14˥ԡޤƤȤ¤Ǥ롥ε ([2015-10-04-1]) ǻȤ Iglesias-Rábade Ҥ٤Ƥ褦ˡñΤΥե󥹼ѸΥԡȻŪˤ褽礹Ȥ¤פǤ롥Iglesias-Rábade ϶μѤΥԡ14ȾȤߤƤΤФơPrins 14ȾȤߤƤȤ㤤롥Prins (81) 󤲤ƤɽƸƤ

PeriodItemsN. B.
1000--11001 
1100--12000 
1200--130013(3 of which ins S. E. Leg.. c 1290)
1300--140029(during the first half of the century twice as as many as during the second. Brunne comes in for 8, Cursor Mundi for 5, Chaucer for 4 items)
1400--150012(of which 5 in Caxton)
1500--16008 
1600--17003 
1700--18001 
1800--19001 


ˡǤɽ˼ζ¿ޤǻĤäƤȤ¤ŦƤ롥ߤޤǤѤ뤤ϸȤʤäƤΤ15ĤˤĤ53Ĥϸǡ"part and parcel of every day speech" (81--82) ǤȤ¸Ψ77.9%ȳΤ˹⤤
3ܤȤơѤ줿ΰ̣ΰܤȡ͡ǤϤ뤬礿Ȥ󤲤ط17ġƻ11ġˡΧ9ĤȤʤ롥ʸػŪˤϥե󥹸λʸʸΤѸ˲äͿΤ15ȾȤ뤳Ȥ¿ɽμѤʸŪʴޤߤ뤳ȤͤСβäϼºݤˤϤäᤤϤޤäƤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
¿ζϡե󥹸ζ (loan_translation) Ȥ󼨤Ƥ롥ĤޤꡤѸ¦ɽˤϡե󥹼ѸǤϤʤѸδޤޤƤΤ¿Τ褦ʾˤϡ˥ե󥹸줫Ρ֤ʤפʤΤ뤤ϱѸǼǺ夲줿ɽʤΤꤹΤ񤷤ޤޤ롥ññΤǤϤʤʣñȤ߹碌ɽμѤ˴ؤ븦ϡʸˡŪʼѤθȤȤˡˡȤ񤷤Ȥ롥

Prins, A. A. "French Influence in English Phrasing." Neophilologus 32 (1948): 28--39, 73--83.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-11-16 Mon

#2394. ե󥹸ˤ⤫Ĥ¸ߤ th [french][phonetics][consonant][doublet][th]

̾ե󥹸 th ʻ໤ˤϷӤĤʤΤǤϤʤȻפ롥ƥθ d ʤɤΥե󥹸ˤˤƼ岽üƤˤơ໤ʳФȤȤϡĴŪˤ϶ˤƼǤ롥ơʳˤե󥹸ñ줬λ໤Ȥ˱ѸؼѤ줿ȤȤäꤷƤ⡤ۤǤϤʤɤ顤faith Ȥñ줬ޤˤΤ褦ʲФȤƵ󤲤褦
ȯˤֻˤ衤θƤ餷ƥޥϤΤ褦˸롥츻ŵ򷫤餫ʤ褦ˡűѸˤ¸ߤѸμѸǤʬ롥ƥ fidēs (ˤťե󥹸 feid, feit ȤʤꡤθҲ11--12ˤϡҤΤ褦˼岽໤Ƥȹͤ롥໤äƤθαѸؼѤ줿رѸ츻ŵ٤ˤȡfaith ˤ㳰Ū th ĤäΤϤ餯 truth, sooth ʤɤαƶǤפȤ롥
ʤ˥ե󥹸Ǥϸ˾üե󥹸Ǥ foi ؤȯŸƤ롥θҲΤʤѸ fei, fay ȤäƤꡤۤѤ˶ᤤ֤ fay ˤ (cf. PDE by my fay < OF par ma fei) äơfaith fay 2Ÿ (doublet) ȤȤˤʤ롥
Ѹν֤ˤ MED feith (n.) Anglo-Norman ν֤ˤ The Anglo-Norman Dictionary fei 򻲾Ȥ줿
OED faith, n. and int. ιꡤθҲˤĤơѤƤ

The dental fricative in English apparently reflects the pronunciation of the final consonant in the earliest stages of Anglo-Norman and Old French (before its deletion, probably in the 11th cent.), this would make faith the only borrowing from Anglo-Norman to preserve this feature in a monosyllabic word (compare the parallel borrowing FAY n. 1 without it); it may have been preserved under the influence of the semantically related TRUTH n. and TROTH n. (For preservation of the early French final dental in suffixes, compare e.g. DAINTETH n. and the β. forms at PLENTY n., adj.., and adv..

It has also been suggested that the final dental in English faith is -TH suffix 1 (i.e. showing suffixation of fei FAY n. 1 within English), but this rarely combines with nouns and not normally with first elements of non-Germanic origin.


[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-11-15 Sun

#2393. <Crist> <Christ> [loan_translation][etymology][spelling][etymological_respelling][eebo][capitalisation][hebrew]

νפ̾εϡإ֥饤ǡפ̣ māshīaχ (> PDE Messiah) ˤ롥򥮥ꥷѤΡС֤ʤפꥷ Khrīstós (cf. khríein (v.)) Ǥ뤳ƥ Chrīstus ͳơѸ䤽¾θäŹϥɥĸǤ <crist>, <krist> Τۤ <christ> ⤢äűѸǤ <crist> ֻǸ졤ѸǤ <ch-> ֻϤۤȤɸʤꥷʸϤơ<xpist>, <xps> ʤɤɽϤꤨ
OED ˤȡ"This word and its derivatives and cognates (including CHRISM n. and its derivatives) were very rarely (and perhaps only accidentally) spelt with ch- in Middle English, but this has been the regular fashion since 1500; in French it began in the preceding century." Ȥ롥
ޤرѸ츻ŵ٤ˤȡ<ch> ֻ1500ǯʹߤɸಽȤꡤƬʸѤ̤ˤʤΤ17ᤫǤȤʤűѸˤ첻 /iː/ ȯϡɷ붵դαƶˤΤȤ̣Ҥ⤢ä
15--16 <ch-> 줿Ȥȡޤե󥹸ǤϤ꾯᤯ƱֻԤƤȤȤϡѸˤĬήͤˡͥ󥹴ȤħŪʸ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) Τ⤦1ĤȹͤΤޤOED θڤƤ褦Ѹ "accidentally" ˤǤϤ졤<ch-> ȤΤ⤪⤷ȤΤϡͥ󥹴ȷӤĤ䤹츻Ūֻ¿㤬¤ѸʳǤ⻶ȯŪƤȤ¤뤫ˤƤ⡤<Christ> ŵŪʸ츻ŪֻȸƤ֤ȤǤ
EEBO (Early English Books Online) μƥȥǡ١ʰ׸ƤߤȤ15ȾǤ <c-> ΤߤҥåȤ<ch-> ϸʤäȤ16Ⱦˤʤȡ100ǽ <c-> 60٤ѤƤΤФơ <ch-> 234Ƥ롥16ȾˤʤȡֻϤۤѤȤʤäΤȤơ16ˡֻȯŪǿĥȤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2018-03-22-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-11-14 Sat

#2392. ˡαѸȴˤˡܸ [grammatology][writing][orthography][kanji][hiragana][katakana][romaji][japanese][spelling][standardisation]

ε#2391. ɽư ([2015-11-13-1]) ǡˡĸѸȡˡδˤܸ˿줿ˡ (orthography) ȤϡŪˤϸνɽε§Ǥ롥ѸǤи֤ΤȤˤʤꡤܸǤлѴ¡겾̾̾Ʊۻɽʤɤ꤬ط롥ܸˡˤĤդι𼨤䷱ˤäơܰ¡פ֤ɤפϤȤϤϤϤʤæΤ¨ְִ㤤פˤʤ櫓ǤʤȤǤϡϤ긽ѸˡȤϰۤʤꡤˤΤȸʤʤܸΤ˴ؤƤϡˡˡΤʤܸ٤򻲾ȡˡ
⤽ܸϴʿ̾Ҳ̾޻Ȥ4ĤʸηϤǽɽȤǤ롥ѸǤϤưʪ̾ɽΤˡΡʸʸʤɤζ̵̤뤹С<cat> ֤ʳϤʤܸǤ <ǭ> Τۤ<ͤ> <ͥ>ޤˤäƤ <neko> ǤƤ졤ְ㤤ȤϤʤܸɽˤƤϡ񤭼֤Ƥʸ̡̮񤭼εʬˤꡤɽȽǤ;Ϥ롥ǤŤܸ٤СܸˤϤ٤Ρܰ¡פ֤ɤפΤ¤ǤꡤˡޤäʤȸȤǤʤ
μפʸ˴ؤƤС񵭤ζḽˤϡ٤κϤɸಽȵϲˤȤ롥ܵؤ䥢ǥߡͿˡꤹե󥹤Τ褦ʹ⤢С򤫤ƲΤ夲ˡΩꥹΤ褦ʹ⤢롥ܤǤϡʹߡܤƻؿˤ򼨤Ƥ¿θϤβǤ褽ָˡΩƤܸˡϡȤˤޤǡִˤ׾֤ˤȤɤޤäƤ롥
Τ褦˹񤴤ȡ줴ȤˡΩˤϰۤʤäƤ뤬ΰ㤤ͳ褹Τ䤦Ȥ̵̣ҲʸˤȤäҲŪװϤͿΤۤʬŪˤǤ졤ɽоݤθηϤѤƤηϤΤΤͳ褹װδͿꤹ뤳ȤϤǤʤϡƸɽηϤεϲˤĤƤ˳ƻˤɽηϤεŪʸ椬ʤʤФʤʤ

󡡡ˡΤʤܸ١ȽŹ2013ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-11-13 Fri

#2391. ɽư [grammatology][writing][orthography][spelling]

ܸɴŵ (p. 310) ˵󤲤Ƥɽưβפꤹޤ˶̣Ҥ줿ʲˡۤ¤˺Ƹ褦

                  
            ɽηϨ      ʸ̡̮
                  
                                    
          
                                                  
                                        
                          ɽΨ        
                                    
                                              
                          
                    ɽ樢    ɽʨ  
                          
                                              
                                              
            
ɽ    ɽ                ɽ
            
                                                  
                                    
          

ɽȤưɽ߽ФƤˤϡޤΤ褦͡ʻͿԤװͿ롥οޤϡɽʺˤɽʱˤȤƽϤޤǤβ򼨤ΤǤ롥β濴ˤϡΤȤʤ顤񤭼ǤɽΤ롥ɽΤβˤɽϡʸηϤʸʤɤǤǤꡤɽΤϤˤä¤뤳Ȥ롥㤨СѴΤߤѤȤե٥åȤξʸΤߤѤʤɤξǤ롥Ʊ褦ˡɽΤɽʤˤäƤƶ롥ɽʤȤϰ̤ˤɮѶतؤǯŻŪʥԥ󥰤ʤɤޤࡥˤäơΤ䡤ɽΤ褦ʤɤѤ뤳Ȥ롥
ȤγˤɽηϤȤɽ§νǤꡤˤäƤ⡤ɽϱƶ롥ޤʸ̡̮⡤ɽΤɤɽɽʤѤɽԤ˴Ϳ롥㤨СʼǤܴΤɮѤƽ񤯤ȤåǤά¿ޤ᤿Żҥ᡼񤯤ʤɤ TPO ιθΤȤǽŪ˼Ƴ򰮤äƤΤϡɽΤǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤʤɽηפɽפäƤΤϡ㤨СֻʬʤơɽΤΤѤƤޤȤ롥
ɽηϤˡ褯ΩƤ븽ѸΤ褦ʸˤƤϡʬɽΤȽǤ;ϤʤᡤŪñȤʤ롥Τ褦ɸŪʵ§ˤܸΤ褦ʸɽˤƤϡɽΤμŪʷ꤬פʰ֤롥Ѹɽоȸ䡤ƸɽŪˤơɽưβפȤäƹͻȤ⤷

ܸɴŵ١İ ɧۤ ԡ罤ۡ1988ǯ

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2015-11-12 Thu

#2390. ʸηϤεȯã (2) [grammatology][writing][kanji]

ε³Ƥꡥ (226) ϡʸȯŸʳȤưʲΤ褦ήꤷƤ롥

           ɽʡ             ʸʡ

ʳ1     ʤ

ʳ2     ʸ                   ɽʸɽա


           ̻ˡ           ̸դñ̤ȤδϢ

ʳ    ݷ 
                         ɽɽաʸ
            ػ 

ʳ    ʸ   ɽɽաʸ
                                  
                                
                              
軰ʳ        
                                              
                        
                                   
                              
                                
                                   
            ڻ   ɽʸʲᡤñ

                                ɽ˲ʸ
ʳ    ɽ 
                                ɽñʸ
źΤ٤ƤʸηϤοޤʳФȤ櫓ǤϤʤʳǻߤޤäƤΡʣʳξ¸ƤΤʤ͡ʲǽͤ롥ʸηϤˤȤ礭ߤˤϡ§Ȥƾޤˤ夫鲼ؤȤʳܤƤäȤǧƤ褤ɽ줫ɽؤήǤ롥
Ǥϡοܤ̤ǤΤϤʤ1Ĥˤϡʸ˴ؤк롥ʸϤޤʸȤơʤɽʸȤƻϤޤäΤ褦ʸηϤǤϸ§ȤθäɤŨ餫ȤʸɬפȤʤ롥ŵʤɤ߽񤭤Ȥ˳ؽѤǤ롥ФơɽŪηϤǤϡʸǿɴʸñʸǿʸǻ­롥ʸηϤηϡפǤʤСкܻؤȤȤԻ׵ĤǤϤʤ
ޤɽʸηϤˤƤ⡤̩˳ƸФ1ʸƤ櫓ǤϤʤʸȯƱ̤θɽ魯벾ڡʤˤθȯãΤǤ롥ĤޤꡤɽʸˤŪ˲ɽ魯ǽäƤΤǤꡤ줬ĥƤɽʸؤѲƤȤȤϽʬ˹ͤ롥
äơʸηϤϰۤʤŬѤƤȤ⤢롥ºݡʸˤϡ񤭵ȯãʸηϤ٤¾ؤȳ礷ƤˤäɽɽʸηϤۤʤؤȰܿȤ餯̾ưʤɤƸ伫Ω¿ξǶͭƤꡤѤ˺ݤƤ꤬ۤʤ⤷ʤԤθ˸ͭʸˡŪǡ°޸ʤɡˤɽˡʸηϤ˷礱ƤȤ礬äޤθθͭ̾ɽݤˤ⡤꤬롥Τ褦ʾˡɽʸηϤ¢Ƥ벾ڤʤɤɽǽʤơɽŪɽߤΤŬڤܸ˰ܿ줿ȤˡˤΤʤܸȼγѸतɽ魯Τˡղ̾Ȥλˡȯã̾ȤʸȯΤϡιǤ롥

ζͺԡˡظؤؤֿͤΤˡ١ۼҡ1986ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-11-11 Wed

#2389. ʸηϤεȯã (1) [grammatology][writing][alphabet][kanji]

źʸηϤ˾夤ȯŸƤȤˤĤơ#422. ʸμ ([2010-06-23-1])#2341. ɽʸɽʸ ([2015-09-24-1])#1822. ʸη ([2014-04-23-1])#1834. ʸǯɽ ([2014-05-05-1])#1853. ʸη (2) ([2014-05-24-1])#2344. ɽʸɽʸɽʸ ([2015-09-27-1]) ǴϢ򰷤äƤϡʸεȯãγά򵭤
ˤˤʸĤΤȤäϡԤˤäƿǯγ롥3ǯ˱и󤯸ʸˤĤʤǽŦƤ뤬 (23) ΰѤ褦ˡʸϾΤɤޤ줿ʤɤΤϤʤȤǤ롥Ҳ񤬾ħŪʪĤİϢʪŪĤȤΤӡɽ롤äҲ񤬤¤ʸиϤɤˤ⤢ΤǤ롥ĤμҲ񤬸ŪΡƶɲˤȤ¸ǽΡǴڰʳΤΡˤ򤷤Ȼפס¤ǡʸʳΤȤơ奤ǹԤ줿 (quipu) ȤϿˡΤƤ롥μܤ俧礤ˤäơ䤽¾ΰ̣ɽ魯ΤǤ롥κǸŤεȸƤ٤Τɤ̩ܤ˸ñ̤ȷӤĤƤϷפΤ줺줬ʸʤΤ뤤ʸʳˤʤΤȽǤ񤷤
4000ǯޤǤˤϥʸˤڴ˽񤫤줿ʸ餷椬졤3300ǯˤϥ᥽ݥߥǤʸȲǤ褦ʵ椬иʸϳʸݷʸ (pictogram) ȸƤФ롥ʸϡγؤʪΤΤб㤨ĻسԤǤФĻؤʤɡǤ⸶ŪʸȤϤȯƤ롥1500ǯξݷʸʴˤ丽ߤƻϩɸޤ֥ԥȥפ⡤ʸȤƤʤͭ (#2244. ԥȥβǽ ([2015-06-19-1])) Ūʷ⤿ʤŪʳǰɽ魯ΤˡΡ־פֲפΤ褦˲ξ䲼Ǥä椫ȯãػʸ⡤Ʊ褦˸ŪʸǤ롥ǽʸϡȤñ̤̩ܤ˷ӤĤƤ뤳Ȥ顤ɽʸ (logogram) ȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥ɽʸŵǤ뤬äεϤɤŨʸȤäƤ褯5ۤɤ⤢Ȥ롥ʸ˸¤2٤˼ޤΤΡʿǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ
ɽʸμʳȤơɽʸ (phonogram) ޤ줿ɽʸϸȤɽ魯ˤɬŪ˲ʵǤİбˤ񤵤ƤΤǡʸäƲľܤɽ綠ȤǽʣΤޤȤޤꡤŵŪˤϲʸбʸ (syllabic) ȯã뤳Ȥ¿ܸβ̾ϤΤ褦ˤŵŪʲʸǤ롥ɽʸ٤ʸϳʤȾʤʤꡤɴδ֤˼ޤ뤳Ȥ¿
ʸ餵ʬᲽʤȡʸȲǤӤĤʸ뤤ñʸ (alphabet) ޤ줿˷кŪʸηϤǡʸ20?30Ĥۤɤ˼ޤ뤳Ȥ¿ꥷե٥åȡޥ󡦥ե٥åȡ롼ʸʸʤʣβʸ¸ߤ뤬ⵯʸ (North Semitic) ȸƤФ롤ѥ쥹ʤ䥷ꥢʤɤǵ1700ǯ餤Ѥ줿饢ե٥åȤ̤ (#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1]))
Τ褦ˡźʸȯãɽʸɽʸؤȿʤǤΤǤꡤȿФǤϤʤɽʸʳηŪˤȤɤޤäƤΤϴ餤ǤꡤۤȤɤʸηϤɽظƤȤϻ¤Ǥ롥ΤȤɽʸΤۤɽʸͥƤȤȤ̣櫓ǤϤʤʸηϤɾϡ줬оݤȤʤ򤤤ˤ褯ɽȤǤ뤫ȤˤäƤΤǤꡤʸηϤ෿ŪʶʬˤäƼưŪޤΤǤϤʤޤоݤȤʤˤ¸
ʤŪʵ椫ɽʸؤȯŸ夷ơɽʸ (ideogram) ȯãꤹ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤʸؼоݤλʪ䤽ɽ魯бˤȤɤޤ餺ȴŪ˷ӤĤ줿ΰ̣ɽ魯褦ˤʤ뤳Ȥ롥㤨2700ǯ˸줿᡼ʸνΤΤǤϡ򤫤ɤŪϡסְŤסֹפʤɡפȴŪ˴ϢŤ줿̣ɽ路ܸˤ־פȤϡ֤ס֤ס֤ߡס֤礦ס֤Τܡʤˡס֤ʤˡס֤ʤˡפȤθбƤꡤʣɽʸȤǤƤӤʤۤɤ֤⤤ȤפȤ̤ΰ̣ǧǤϡषɽʸȹͤۤǤȤո⤢롥ǡɽʸʤɽʸηϡˤȤΤꤦΤȤ⤢뤳ȤդäƤɽʸǧˤ衤Ƥ¾μʸȤ߹蘆äѤȹͤƤ褤

륤᥸󡦥 ʸ Ρ ʸˡ١Ͻн˼1998ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-11-10 Tue

#2388. μפʱѸѼβŪʬ [world_englishes][model_of_englishes][ame_bre][ame][bre][irish_english][australian_english][new_zealand_english][scottish_english][scots][map]

μפʱѸѼʬहߤϡȤƼҲŪʻ͡ˤʤƤܥ֥Ǥ⡤model_of_englishes εǼ夲Ƥ̤Ǥ롥ŪʴʬȤƤϡTrudgill and Hannah ˤ벻˴ŤΤΤƤ롥ŪˤС礭 'English' type 'American' type 2ʬˡǤꡤľŪǿͤˤ򤷤䤹ξQŪ˸ʬबȤƤϡŪʸϤٻȤȤǤ롥 'American' type 'English' type 2ʬˡϡѶŪŪʻС绨Ĥˤäƥ󥰥 'northern' type 'southern' type 2ʬˡ뤳Ȥդ
Trudgill and Hannah (10) ϡŪܤ٤Ȥưʲ10󤲤ơѸѼ޼

Key
1. /ɑː/ rather than /æ/ in path etc.
2. absence of non-prevocalic /r/
3. close vowels for /æ/ and /ɛ/, monophthongization of /ai/ and /ɑu/
4. front [aː] for /ɑː/ in part etc.
5. absence of contrast of /ɒ/ and /ɔː/ as in cot and caught
6. /æ/ rather than /ɑː/ in can't etc.
7. absence of contrast of /ɒ/ and /ɑː/ as in bother and father
8. consistent voicing of intervocalic /t/
9. unrounded [ɑ] in pot
10. syllabic /r/ in bird
11. absence of contrast of /ʊ/ and /uː/ as in pull and pool

10  9   8   7   6   5        6   7   8   9   11         10         11  5   1   2

|   |   |   |   |   |        |   |   |   |   |          |          |   |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   |        |   |   |   |   | Northern |          |   |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   | Canada |   |   |   |   | Ireland  | Scotland |   |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   |        |   |   |   |   `----------+----------'   |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   |        |   |   |   |              |              |   |   |
|   |   |   |   |   `--------+---+---+---+--------------+--------------'   |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |   |              |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |   `----------,   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |              |   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |              |   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |              |   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |              |   |                  |   |
|   |   |   |   |   USA      |   |   |   ,----------+---+------------------'   |
|   |   |   |   |            |   |   |   | Republic |   |                      |
|   |   |   |   `------------'   |   |   |   of     |   |   ,------------------'
|   |   |   |                    |   |   | Ireland  |   |   |
|   |   |   `--------------------'   |   |          |   |   |  England  ,--------------------------------- 3
|   |   |                            |   |          |   |   |           | 
|   |   |                            |   |          |   |   |  Wales    |         ,----------------------- 4
|   |   |                            |   |          |   |   |           | South   | Australia   New
|   |   `----------------------------'   |          |   |   |           | Africa  |             Zealand
|   |                                    |          |   |   |           |         `----------------------- 4
|   |                                    |          |   |   |           |
|   `------------------------------------+----------'   |   |           `--------------------------------- 3
|                                        |              |   |
`----------------------------------------+--------------'   `--------------------------------------------- 2
                                         |
                                         `---------------------------------------------------------------- 1

οޤȤơTrudgill and Hannah (10)

We have attempted to portray the relationships between the pronunciations of the major non-Caribbean varieties in [this] Figure 1.1. This diagram is somewhat arbitrary and slightly misleading (there are, for example, accents of USEng which are close to RP than to mid-western US English), but it does show the two main types of pronunciation: an 'English' type (EngEng, WEng, SAfEng, AusEng, NZEng) and an 'American' type (USEng, CanEng), with IrEng falling somewhere between the two and ScotEng being somewhat by itself.


Ǹ˿Ƥ褦ˡIrish English 2ʬˤޤ뤳ȡŤˤ Scots English ȼϩԤäƤ뤳Ȥ϶̣

Trudgill, Peter and Jean Hannah. International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English. 5th ed. London: Hodder Education, 2008.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-11-09 Mon

#2387. ܸʸˡʶԡ [kanji][hiragana][katakana][romaji][japanese][writing][grammatology][orthography]

ε˰³ƣ4ϡֶʸ (pp. 63--83) ˰͵򤷤ƶԤޤȤ롥
塤ôϰζؤ˸¤ƤˤʤˤĤ졤͵Įؤءƶ̤ư̤˹̱ؤȳƤäȤϤȤʸηϤҲعƩˤϺȼäϤǤꡤ̾ɤ߽񤭤٤ƿƩŪ٤줿ȤϳΤγȤˤϡˤǤȤǥо줬äȤϴְ㤤ʤĮָųǡפ˹Ԥʤ졤θ塤겾̾դǡפ̤ơ͡ޤʸ˿뵡ʤŪʴνΤԽǤꡤŪɽæƻ̹ԤȤդäƤ
ˤʤȡλ¤εޤä̩Ϸı2ǯ (1867) ˡִѻǷġפ򤷡äѤ鲾̾񤭤󾧤ʡ͡Ȥϡ6ǯ (1873) ˡѤˤƱդǤʤ2, 3٤ޤ٤ȼĥΤ褦ʾʸʤ33ǯ (1900) ˶Ѵ1200ᡤθ̤ƤĤδ°ƤФ塤21ǯ (1946) ˤ1850ʤѴɽפۤ줿ϵϤȤƤʤΤä56ǯ (1981) ˤϡβǤȤ1945ʤ־Ѵɽפۤ졤ϵ㤯ʤܰ¡פˤȤɤޤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
̾ˤĤƤϡϻ郎줵ƤȤäƤ褤ˤϡ̤ʸϤϴʿ̾򤸤ʸǽ񤫤ƤꡤҲ̾ʤɤ˸ꤵƤҲ̾λΤϡŪ褯줷ƤꡤǤꥨϤޤʤ33ǯ (1900) ˡ־عܹԵ§פǸԤλΤ줿оŪˡʿ̾ˤ϶ޤ¿λΡβ̾ǧ줿β̾ˤ֤ˤȤʬʤɤηϸ줿ߤʤޤ޸ޤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
̾ˤĤƤϡȲ̾ƶϤݤäˤʤȷϽ8ǯ (1695) ˡս٤˽ʤȲ̾˵Ť»٤路ơʸ˴Ť̾ؤβ󵢤ĥ֤פȡ֤פʬֻۤͤĤʡסʤ¤šˤˤڤӡܵĹܷɧʤɤ˻ٻƤȤˤʤ롥̾ϡäƤؼԤˤѤ졤ʸԻΡؾضʽ١6ǯ (1873)ˤˤѤ줿ʸɧΡظ١24ǯ (1891)ˤǤ졤θ塤21ǯ (1946) ˡָ夫ʤŤפۤޤ³
⤦1Ĥܸ񤭵ʸηϤǤ޻ˤĤƤϡ#1879. ܸˤ޻ˡ ([2014-06-19-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
Ǹˡˤ˴ñ˿Ƥˤϸδɤ췿뤬Τȯ뤿˴Ҳ̾դ줿椫ȯãΤȤ롥ͿϡޤǤϥꥷаӤƤʤäͻξǤϡηޤꡤ褯դ褦ˤϤʤäƤ뤬ޤ̳ŪǤϤʤʹߤˡ٤ʤɤδҲ̾θʸˤդƤʤʸ̮ȽǤˤ⤷Фоά줿ʤȾȾˤϡäȯ٤졤줿Τ϶Ǥ롥ꥷФϤѤηŪǤʤͻʹߤˤʤäؼԤν񵭤ˤ٤Ƥ
εϸ˵롥ʸɤˤơɤ߼꤬ʸϤŪ˶ڤΤ˽񤭹ΤεǤ롥Įˤϡɤ߼صޤäơϳȤޤ褦ˤʤäλȤʬζ̤ޤᡤԤζˡΩƤäΤϡ40ǯ (1907) ʹߤǤ롥ˤϡΤζˡ (punctuation) αƶͿƤ롥¾Ĺ֡פ¥֤áפλѤޤäΤǤ롥٤פȾΤη֤ʴ֤֡ס֤̾֡ס֡פʤɡˤϡȯãˤ̤Ѥ줿ָ夫ʤŤפι𼨰ʹߤϡۤȤѤʤʤä
ܸʸˤϡʸҲ˹ƩʸѤؤΰռιޤȤȤˡɸŪʽ񵭤Ϻ褦ˤʤäƤˤȤȤǤ롥

ƣ س⡡ܸˡ١īҽŹ1995ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-10-29-1] [2015-12-22-1]

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2015-11-08 Sun

#2386. ܸʸˡʸԡ [kanji][hiragana][katakana][japanese][writing][grammatology][orthography]

ƣ3ϡָʸ (pp. 42--62) ˴ŤܸʸˡʸԡˤάҤ롥
ܸʸˤϡȤƻϤޤ롥ͭ̾ʡִ۹񲦡פζ¬褦ˡˤϤǤ˴ʪʤȤȤܤ˻ޤƤ褦2--3⡤ӤӤΰʤڤƤ롥δ֡ܿͤϤʸͤȤƤȤ館ʸȤ򤹤뤳ȤϤʤä
Ȥʤ͡ȤȤܤˤ⤿餵褦ˤʤäΤϡˤȡľ䲦ΤɴѤ褷4ȾΤȤǤȹͤ롥²λܻԤζȬȨҤʪʸܸ̾ιʯŴʸ̸ĻԤΰٻʯŴζʸʤɤϺǽδǤꡤϤλ˴ˤʤδʸڤˤܸͭ̾ɽ롥6ޤǤζʸϵͤμˤʤΤ¿ʹߤʩŵιǼ̤ơܿͤˤܳŪʴؽϤޤäΤȻפ롥ʤˤܸͭʸȤơֿʸפäȤ⤢뤬Ǥϻ¤ǤϤʤȿƤ롥
ܸȤϷ෿ۤʤɽ魯ܸɽ魯Τ˱Ѥ褦Ȥܿͤϡθ塤Ф餯δ֡Ժ򷫤֤Τ褦ʻԺ̤1Ĥ¡˷ΩǤ롥ˤꡤбñȤδطꤹ褦ˤʤäޤʴʸǤϤʤܸ֤˽äδʸ7ȾˡδƲǡäʤɤ˸褦ˤʤäΤ⡤Τ褦ʻԺ̤1Ǥ롥8ηظŻ٤νʸǡܸɽ뤳ȤκˤĤ˾ƼŪ˸ڤظŻ٤ǤϡȲ̾ξѤƤꡤɤʬιפޤƤ롥Τ褦˴ܸؤμʤʤǡΧ٤ΤȤʴʸϿꤨΤȤƴҲ˿ƩƤä
8Ρս٤ǤϡܸؤŬѤϤƤפ롥δʸDzѤɽ줿ΤǤϡ졦ư줬Ƥ餺άɽȤΤ뤬ɤߤˤäȤɤ򤱤뤿μιפŤ餵褦ˤʤ롥ΤƲ̾ŪʸźɤߤŪ˼ꡤФˤΤʤ̤äʸźʤɤơɽϤޤޤѤʳؤȿʤ
սʸѤɽղ̾ȯãϡ̾̾ʤɤȤơ̾Τߤܸ򼫺ߤɽǤ褦ˤʤäǡܸʸ˾塤Ūʻäޤȿ̾б1¿ǤϤä褷ƥǤϤʤü첾̾ȾΤ뵬§˴Ť򡦻ѤƤղ̾ϡɽŪ¦̤ܤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤΡ¤ϸŪʸɽߤʤɡɽŪʤޤȤޤȯŸˤƤפʸηϤǤ롥
ܸؤμʤϡ˹񷱤ȯãȤäƿʤߡĤ˿̾˼ˤ顤Τ˴Ť̾Фơ̾⤿餷ܸβγơɽ魯ȤŪȤʸʡᲾ̾ˤޤ줿ΤǤ롥ʿ̾ʸʼºݤˤʿ̾Ⱦδθʸˤ²Τ񤭵Τȯãʿ̾ФǤɤߤˤȤ⤢ꡤŪʶڤΰ֤Ū˼ʤȤơϢʡϷѤδۼβ̾Ȥʬʤɤ
ơҲ̾ȯã˰ܤҲ̾εϡʸɤΤοФȤơξʤ̾ˤꡤʤɤԴ֤˽񤭹Ȥˤ롥ξάʤɤˤԴʴȤߤʤ줿Ȥ顤ҡײ̾̾ΤäΤҲ̾ϤǤ10ȾФˤϴΤ˰ۤʤΤȤηϤ줿ʿ̾ŪͤȼäƤΤФҲ̾׻ŪŪŪɽŪŪʸηϤȤͿ졤ħϸߤޤǿǻĤäƤ롥Ҳ̾ʸʼºݤˤ¿δȤθѤۤɤɡˤˤƤϡҲ̾겾̾Ѹ졦ưɽѤ줿Ҳ̾ΤˡϡŤ̿˻Ѥ줿̿Τˤơ졦ư򲻲̾Ǿ񤭤ȴطǽꡤʸŪˤ϶̣
ˡ̾˰ܤ̾ȲȤδطϡȤƲѲˤ֤ȤȤˤƤ뤳ȤԲǤ롥ʸȲδط1¿뤤¿1ˤʤȡλѤ˺ݤ;Ϥ롥Ť뤿ε§̾Ǥ롥̾ˤϡȯãȤΤ顤ͤˤäƵŪꤵΤޤǼΤΤ뤬ܸ˾塤ƶϤäΤȲ̾̾ʵڤӤ˴ŤŪ̾ˡ岾̾3Ǥ롥Ȳ̾ϡƣ (1162--1241) ŵʸΤˡƲ̾θŪʱѤΤ᤿ΤǤꡤ֤פȡ֤פζ̤ʤɤ⤤θ塤β̾ϡ԰ʸιԡˤˤФơ˻ޤʱƶϤؤä
ܸʸˤϡ͡ˡǼʤѤͳߤܸɽãäȤ褦³Ԥϡεǡ

ƣ س⡡ܸˡ١īҽŹ1995ǯ

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2015-11-07 Sat

#2385. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ󥹽줫μѸä (2) [oed][statistics][lexicology][loan_word][borrowing][latin][greek][french][italian][spanish][portuguese][romancisation]

#2357. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ󥹽줫μѸäס ([2015-10-10-1])#2369. Ѹˤˤ륤ꥢ졤ڥ졤ݥȥ줫θüѤˡ ([2015-10-22-1]) ǡCulpeper and Clapham (218) ˤ OED ١Υޥ󥹷ϼѸפҲ𤷤ʸδˡŪʿͤɽηǷǺܤƤΤǡˤ2ĥդʥǡϡHTML򻲾ȡˡ1Ĥ4ȾȤγƸ줫μѸ2ĤϤƱΤ򡤳ƻθФΤˤɴʬΨǼΤǤ롥

Classical and Romance Loanwords in OED

Classical and Romance Loanwords (%) in OED

ϢפȤơ#2162. OED ˤե󥹸졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1]) ǿ줿 Wordorigins.org "Where Do English Words Come From?" ⻲ȡ

Culpeper Jonathan and Phoebe Clapham. "The Borrowing of Classical and Romance Words into English: A Study Based on the Electronic Oxford English Dictionary." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 1.2 (1996): 199--218.

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2015-11-06 Fri

#2384. polycentric language [sociolinguistics][variety][dialect][terminology][world_englishes][model_of_englishes]

ʣΡ濴פĸϡɸ̤ polycentric languagepluricentric language ȸƤФ롥Trudgill (105) Ѹ켭ŵ顤Ѥ롥

A language in which autonomy is shared by two or more (usually very similar) superposed varieties. Examples include English (with American, English, Scottish, Australian and other standard forms); Portuguese (with Brazilian and European Portuguese standard variants); Serbo-Croat (with Serbian and Croatian variants) and Norwegian (with Bokmål and Nynorsk).


polycentric language ȤϡСơAusbau ʸפȸƤӤۤɤɸ碌ʣѼ۲˴ޤ1ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ㤨СꥹѸ (British English) ȥꥫѸ (American English) ϡ̤ŪаޤФƤС⤷ȳơꥹ (British) 䥢ꥫ (American) ȸƤФΩˤʤäƤ⤷ʤ (cf. #468. ꥫȤ Webster ([2010-08-08-1])) ºݤˤϤʤ餺ˡޤǡ֥ꥹѼαѸפ֥ꥫѸפʤɤȸƾΤ褦ˤʤäƤ뤬ֱѸפȸƤФ۲ˤ롤Ūˤפ̤2ѼȤߤʤƤ뤳Ȥϻ¤Ǥ롥Τ褦ʴѸȤߤȤѸ "polycentric language" Ǥȸ롥
"polycentric language" ȤѸ츯ϡѼ autonomy heteronomy (cf. #1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1])) ˴ؤ뤿ᡤѼμҲŪʼ֤ؤΤѤȤϡѼҲŪˤª뤫Ȥɽ魯ΤǤϤʤΰѤǤϡSerbo-Croat 㤬Ƥ뤬ӥ (Serbian) ȥ (Croatian) ߤΩǤȤʼҲ˸ѤλˤȤäƤϡܥ (Serbo-Croat(ian)) "a polycentric language" ǤȤ⤤ϥʥ󥻥󥹤ɤĩȯŪʹ뤫⤷ʤ (cf. #1636. Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian ([2013-10-19-1]))
Ѹˤϡ̸ʬƤʬƤʤʤȤߤʤƤ˸Ѽ֤줿ɽ褦Ȥտޤ롥ָߤ˻Ƥ2פʤΤָߤ˻Ƥ2Ѽ۲ˤ1פʤΤѸˤ衤ܥݥȥˤ衤θѼ˴ؤƤ⡤"polycentric language" Ȥϼ֤Ȥϸ륿ߥΥǤϤʤǡJenkins (64) ȤäƤ褦 "pluricentric approach" ȤɽѤΤŬڤΤ褦˻פ
ε#2383. ݥȥȥ륾ե˥ ([2015-11-05-1]) (5) ǡ֥ݥȥΥ֥饸פ֥֥饸פȤ˸ڤСεϥݥȥ줬 "a polycentric language" ݤεȤȤˤʤ롥

Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Jenkins, Jennifer. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. Abingdon: Routledge, 2003.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-02-06-1] [2015-11-24-1]

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2015-11-05 Thu

#2383. ݥȥȥ륾ե˥ [portuguese][lingua_franca][francophonie][linguistic_imperialism][socio_linguistics][geolinguistics]

ݥȥʸ˼դˤˤĤƤޤ褯Τʤޤޤˡ#2371. ݥȥǯɽ ([2015-10-24-1]) #2372. ݥȥƱΡ ([2015-10-25-1]) ε񤤤θ塤ϢǷءˡإݥȥ̴Τ椯٤ɤǻäΤǡϡݥȥŪʳȤˤĤơä Lusofonia (륾ե˥) ˤĤơǷ򻲾ȤĤ­Ū˽񤭲ä

(1) ݥȥƱ (CPLP) ϡʸĴǡꥹƳ The Commonwealth of Nations ե󥹼Ƴ La Francophonie ˶ᤤ (cf. #1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1]), #2192. La Francophonie (1) ([2015-04-28-1])#2193. La Francophonie (2) ([2015-04-29-1])) ʸ򼴤Ȥݵμ¸ˤĤƤϡŪʸ⤢롥Ƿ (113) ϡΤ褦᤿Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥

кѴطݥȥˤäȯŸȤͤФ󥴥ͺȥڥڥƥϡֺǹμȤϤ礻ѸǹԤΤǤꡤˤϽϤʤפȡݥȥοʹ֥ץ쥽פΥ󥿥ӥ塼Ҥ٤Ƥ롥ƱդäʤǤΤϳ̤ʤȤǤ뤫Τ褦ĴCPLPȯ­ΥǥǸ줿ǰפȤϸߤ»˴ŤäŰʤΤǤݥȥˤȤפǰEUǤꡤ֥饸ݥȥݥȥեꥫȤǰפ¿ϰ¸ƤʤΤǤ롥


(2) ֥륾ե˥פȤդϡ饶Ѥ줿ᡤθ򤵤Ƥ20ˤʤäƺƤɤäƤͳϡ֥륾ե˥פ¿ŪǤ뤫ȤǷ (127) ϡʤȤ3ĤθǧƤ롥

ޤŪʳǰȤƤΥ륾ե˥ݥȥ줢뤤ϸѸȤ񡹤νΤȤ򤷤롥줫顤äȴŪ嫤˴Ť륾ե˥̤θʸˤĤȤǧǤ롥Ūʰ̣ݥȥʸȯŸ뤿ȿΤФ̾ΤǤ롥¿Τˡ륾ե˥ȤդϤΰ졻ǯ֤ۤɤλ٤礷Ƥϥ֥饸ȥեꥫѲʿԤƿʤǤΤǤ롥ȬǯȾ֥饸Ǥ̱˰ܴɤեꥫˤ̱粽ή줬󤻤äơ륾ե˥ʸŪʡ֥쥪װʾΰ̣ǤȤΤǤ롥ĤޤꡤˤŪطʤ⤢Τ㤨СȬǯ̤ơݥȥ׿ͤ˸ˤΤϡݥȥϥ衼åѤȥեꥫγݤˤʤ롤뤤ϥ֥饸𤷡ݥȥϥ衼åѤȥƥ󡦥ꥫγݤȤʤ롤ȤĤγŪֳݤפǤä̱ϻۤνޤʤ¤餻Ƥ館ʤʤäݥȥˤȤꡤΥ쥾ǡȥȤʤ뿷ߥåɬפäơϼ䡤ֳݤפˤʤ뤳ȤäΤǤ롥


(3) ݥȥιϰγơϡŪ˸ΩƤ롥Ƿ (134) ۩

Ѹե󥹸ڥȤ˹ä衼åѽ줬ۤ١ݥȥħĵ󤲤ȤСݥȥѸȤϤդ˥ݥȥȤʤȤȤǤ롥ݥȥϥڥȥꥷ˰Ϥޤ졤֥饸ϥڥ˰Ϥޤ졤ݥȥեꥫϱѸ졤ե󥹸줢뤤ϳ˰Ϥޤ롥顤ݥȥɱŪʤޤ롥ơɤι˽͡ݥȥ˥ǥƥƥε褦ˤʤ롥


(4) Ƿ (138) ϡ18˥ե󥹸줬19˱Ѹ줬ȤƤϰ̤ۤˡݥȥ줬ϤѤƤ¤夲ơݥȥǽϵäȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ݥȥϡ˾ϵ嵬Ϥ lingua_franca ˤʤ꤫ΤǤ롥

(5) 1930ǯ塤40ǯˡ֥饸Ǥϡ֥֥饸褬٥Ǥʤ줿֥饸θѸϡ֥饸ʤΤ뤤ϥݥȥΥ֥饸ʤΤ̤Ȥơݼɥ꡼ȤˤԤθ̤ꡤ֥饸ϸȾäʻǷpp. 145--46) εϡꥫʤΤѸΥꥫʤΤȤפФˤʤ (cf. #468. ꥫȤ Webster ([2010-08-08-1]))

(6) ݥȥϸŪ٤⤤Τϻ¤ι2θѸȤƥߥ (Mirandese) ꤵƤ¤ȤƤϤʤʤθɡݥȥڥΤ˿फΤ褦ʰ֤ˤ Miranda do Douro 12,000--15,000ͤˤääƤ롥Ƿ (182) ϼΤ褦˥ߥȼ⤷Ƥ롥

ߥ줬ΥꥸʥƥĥΤϸΤʤȤ櫓ǤϤʤֿͤϼǯ٥ꥢȾ˾Φθ強ǯ֤ǥ٥ꥢȾΤۤƤޤäߥɡɥϥֿͤϤڤФʤäʤϰΰĤǤ롥컰ߥˤϥڥ¦Υ쥪ܽԤ졤ϤΤ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥ä줿˥쥪줬ߥȯŸΤǤꡤäơϥݥȥǤʤСڥǤʤ쥪𤷥ƥľͳ褹Ǥ롥ߥϥ٥ꥢȾΥޥ󥹽褺äȥݥȥΤäƤʤΤǤ롥


Ƿ ءإݥȥ̴Τ椯١Ҳɾҡ2000ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2015-11-06-1]

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2015-11-04 Wed

#2382. Ѹ̾ؤ񤷤 [onomastics][toponymy][philology][etymology]

ͭ̾ (onomastics) ΰʤ̾ (toponymy) ϡѸǤ褯椵ƤѸ̾ؤʤѸ츻ؤȤϢѸ줬˾͡ʸܿƤ¤ˤꡤѸ츻ؤʣǤΤƱͤˡѸ̾ؤǤ롥Ʊؼ̾ΤΤϤˤäưۤʤβŪħȿǤʤɤ̻ŪƱǧʸŪʺȤʤΤǤ롥ѸΤߤʤ餺طθ츻ءֻʤɡ¿γغŪμưƽƱǽȤʤ롥
αѸ̾ؤ񤷤ˤĤơCoates (338--39) ϼΤ褦ɽƤ롥

[E]xplaining many English names is a delicate exercise in philology, as the elements which make them up have to be identified in one of a number of languages. The tradition of writing in England stretches back more than 1,300 years, and phonetic and orthographic evolution have not always been in step with each other. In addition, there is a radical discontinuity in the written record. Before 1066, the record contains many place-names formulated in interpretable OE, the native language of most of those engaged in writing, though Latin was also a language of record. After 1066, a bureaucracy was installed where, irrespective of the writers' native language, Latin and French were the languages of record; the scribal practices adopted were in part those used for Latin, but otherwise those originally applied in the writing of French late in the first millennium. These did not sit easily with the phonology of English, and there was a period where the recorded names may be hard to interpret, i.e. to assign to known places. By the thirteenth century, those who applied the conventions were again producing passable renderings of the phonology of English names, and they often begin to show affinity with the forms current now. Until the fifteenth century, they are often still in French or Latin texts and influenced to some degree by that context, e.g. by being formed and spelt in a way suitable for declension in Latin (normally first-declension feminine --- Exonia for Exeter, for instance, or more mechanically the twelfth-century Stouenesbia for Stonesby (Lei)); administrative writing in English belongs only to the period since Henry V set the tone for the use of English in chancery.


Τ褦ʻǡ㤨иűѸΤ̾Ѹ礭ۤʤֻǸƤ褦ʥǡ̤ƤƱ뤷Ƥ褤ΤγǧΤʸŪʺȤɬפȤʤ롥󤲤С᤯695ǯ˵ϿƤ Gislheresuuyrth ϡߤ Isleworth (Mx) ƱؼоݤȹͤƤ뤬ƱϰȤ櫓ǤϤʤ
ޤ륢󥰥ְܴ̾ۤ㤤ʤűѸ˻ѤƤȹͤƤ褤ˤ⤫餺ʸ Domesday Book ǽƵϿ˸Ȥ⤢롥̤˸ؤν̿ǤϤ뤬̾ȤƼºߤƤʸ˸Ȥ˰ۤʤäƤȤ֤ϡȤ櫓̾ؤξˤӻ顤̾ؤȼΥץ⤿Ω1Ĥγʬ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥

Coates, Richard. "Names." Chapter 6 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 312--51.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-12-09-1]

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2015-11-03 Tue

#2381. Gould and Vrba γŬ (2) [exaptation][terminology][evolution][causation][language_change]

³ơGould and Vrba γŬ (exaptation) ꡥGould and Vrba (11--13) ϡʲˤ볰ŬȤѸȳǰν4ۤɻŦƤ롥

(1) Ŭϡ "preadaptation" տ魯Ū (teleology) ŪʴްդʧƤ롥 "preadaptation" ϡѸηϤˤƤ "preaptation" ȸƤ֤٤ΤǤꡤλ¤ˤƹͤ줿 "exaptation" ΰʤ "potential, but unrealized, exaptations" (11) ȤߤʤȤǤ롥
(2) 1˳Ŭ2ŬѤȤ"Feathers, in their basic design, are exaptations for flight, but once this new effect was added to the function of thermoregulation as an important source of fitness, feathers underwent a suite of secondary adaptations (sometimes called post-adaptations) to enhance their utility in flight" (11). Ŭˤäޤ줿θ塤ŬѤβФƤ˵ǽŪˤʤäƤ椯ȤȤϡ̤ΤȤǤ롥
(3) Ŭλ񸻤̵¤Ǥꡤ٤ࡥ"[T]he enormous pool of nonaptations must be the wellspring and reservoir of most evolutionary flexibility. We need to recognize the central role of 'cooptability for fitness' as the primary evolutionary significance of ubiquitous nonaptation in organisms" (12). Ϣơ"[A]ll exaptations originate randomly with respect to their effects" (12) Ǥ롥
(4) Ŭ⤿餷񸻤ϡnonaptation ä⤷ʤ adaptation ä⤷ʤ"Exaptations . . . are not fashioned for their current role and reflect no attendant process beyond cooptation . . .; they were built in the past either as nonaptive by-products or as adaptations for different roles."

Gould and Vrba (13) ϡȤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

We suspect . . . that the subjects of nonaptation and cooptability are of paramount importance in evolution. . . . The flexibility of evolution lies in the range of raw material presented to processes of selection.


ϡ#2155. Ѳȡ̵٤δӡס ([2015-03-22-1]) ǰѤ Lass θѲˤ "The joys of idleness" ľ̤ͤǤ롥

Gould, Stephen Jay and Elizabeth S. Vrba. "Exaptation --- A Missing Term in the Science of Form." Paleobiology 8.1 (1982): 4--15.

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2015-11-02 Mon

#2380. Gould and Vrba γŬ (1) [exaptation][terminology][evolution][diachrony][teleology]

ε#2379. Ƶ̾γŬ ([2015-11-01-1]) Ǥ夲Ŭ (exaptation) ϡ衤ʪʲѸǤ롥#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡGould and Vrba ˤʪʲγŬʪؤˤ褯̤ؼ Lass ѲƤϤ᤿Τä
Gould and Vrba ʸϡۤĹʸǤϤʤȯŪǤ롥ʪؤ糰ǤɤۤɤΰƤꡤ餳ؤؤŬѤ;ϤäΤʲˤѸ̤ơб복ǰߴط餫ˤ褦ȤʸǤꡤνѸ䳵ǰϡΤ˹פиѲˤƤϤ뤳ȤǤ褦˻פ롥ʸƬ׻ (4) 餷ŪͤƤΤǡΤޤްѤ

Adaptation has been defined and recognized by two different criteria: historical genesis (features built by natural selection for their present role) and current utility (features now enhancing fitness no matter how they arose). Biologists have often failed to recognize the potential confusion between these different definitions because we have tended to view natural selection as so dominant among evolutionary mechanisms that historical process and current product become one. Yet if many features of organisms are non-adapted, but available for useful cooptation in descendants, then an important concept has no name in our lexicon (and unnamed ideas generally remain unconsidered): features that now enhance fitness but were not built by natural selection for their current role. We propose that such features be called exaptations and that adaptation be restricted, as Darwin suggested, to features built by selection for their current role. We present several examples of exaptation, indicating where a failure to conceptualize such an idea limited the range of hypotheses previously available. We explore several consequences of exaptation and propose a terminological solution to the problem of preadaptation.


̻ŪȯȶŪͭκƱȤꡤƤ뤿οѸȤƤ exaptation ϡˤƤΩĤϤǤ롥ߥ˥ΩĤ٤̻ŪȯƤ (adaptation) ȡȯãƷŪΩĵǽ (exaptation) ̤ƤȤϡΤɬפޤexaptation ϡŪ (teleology) ŪʸѲѤйѸȳǰͿƤ褦ˤפ롥
Gould and Vrba (5) ϡ"A taxonomy of fitness" ꤹɽǡʲΤ褦˴ϢѸƤ롥

ProcessCharacterUsage
Natural selection shapes the character for a current use --- adaptationadaptationaptationfunction
A character, previously shaped by natural selection for a particular function (an adaptation), is coopted for a new use --- cooptationexaptationeffect
A character whose origin cannot be ascribed to the direct action of natural selection (a nonaptation), is coopted for a current use --- cooptation


νѸ췲ѲˡʬŪˤǤŬѤˤϻԺɬפʤȤϤޤǤʤˤ¿βǽƤ褦ľ롥

Gould, Stephen Jay and Elizabeth S. Vrba. "Exaptation --- A Missing Term in the Science of Form." Paleobiology 8.1 (1982): 4--15.

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2015-11-01 Sun

#2379. Ƶ̾γŬ [exaptation][reflexive_pronoun][personal_pronoun][syntax][speed_of_change][schedule_of_language_change][language_change]

#2376. myself, thyself ˤ my- thy- ([2015-10-29-1]) Ǽ夲 Keenan ʸǤϡḽѸκƵ̾줬Ŭ (exaptation) ηޤ줿ΤǤ뤳Ȥ⤫Ƥ롥oneself η֤ϡ顤;̾оŪˡȤƻϤޤä줬Ʊؼ뤤϶ɽŪ«Ȥ褦ʺƵŪˡȤƵǽ褦ˤʤäȤ ("pron + self is selected because of its contrast function, and later, losing contrast, survives because of its local binding function" (250))
Keenan (346) ϡűѸ줫ѸˤƤ oneself ˡ̤ʬۤꡤΤȤ򼨤ȤűѸ줪ѸˤơƵŪˡϡ줿 oneself ľŪȤƤΤ20%٤ˤʤѸˤǡȤ80%ۤ롥ϡѲ®٤䥹塼Ȥϡ޷SȤȤˤʤꡤ̣ݤǤ롥
Keenan (347) ϡоˡƵˡؤγŬƻڤ򡤼Τ褦˹ͤƤ롥

. . . by the end of ME bare object occurrences of pron + self are losing their contrast interpretation. But this leads again to an ANTI-SYNONYMY violation on a paradigm level. Without the contrast interpretation a locally bound pron + self is synonymous with a locally bound bare pronoun. So him and him + self, her and her + self, etc. would become synonyms. This was avoided by an interpretative differentiation: pron + self in object position came to require local antecedents and bare pronouns came to reject local antecedents (in favor of the always possible non-local ones or deictic interpretations).


ʤKeenan ϡѲϤޤdzŬǤꡤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ǤϤʤȽǤƤ롥#1975. ʸˡȯŸȳ (2) ([2014-09-23-1]) #2146. ѸˤѲϡ͹¤εǽ͹¤ؤγŬǤ ([2015-03-13-1]) Ǽ褦ˡŬʸˡȤδϢ뤳Ȥ¿ξԤδطɬñǤϤʤΤ⤷ʤ

Keenan, Edward. "Explaining the Creation of Reflexive Pronouns in English." Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective. Ed. D. Minkova and R. Stockwell. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2002. 325--54.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-02-25-1] [2015-11-02-1]

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