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2017-08-31 Thu

#3048. kangaroo θ츻 [etymology][loan_word][language_myth][folk_etymology]

ȥꥢͭ kangaroo θ츻ˤĤơ¿οͤˤȤΤǤϤʤˤȡȥꥢθ̱ (Aborigine) θͳ褹뤬ȤȤϤưʪؤǤϤʤäȤCaptain Cook ̱ưʪ̾ҤͤȤθ줬֤äƤΤϸ̱θ I don't know. ۤɤ̣ΤäȤĤޤꡤ㤤ޤ줿ָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) Ȥͤθ츻ϸ¯Ȼפ롥ΤޤȤ䤫Ϲήۤ뤳ȤˤʤꡤߤǤ³Ƥ롥
ǤϡºݤΤȤϤɤäΤ츻ŪϤʤȤäƤ褤I don't know ϤäȿȹͤҲ𤷤褦ȥꥢ̱νΤʤˡưʪΤǤ緿ιؤ gangaru, gangurru, ganurru ʤɤȸƤָ줬 Guugu Yimidhirrˡ餯줬 kangaroo Ȥ֤ΤθؼѤ줿Τθ塤ΤθdzΩθ줬ȥꥢ̱¾θؤ⹭äĤޤꡤ¤¿θ̱θˤȤäơkangaroo ΤμѸȤȤǤ롥
Horobin (136--37) βƤ롥

Sadly, the story that the name of the kangaroo derives from the locals' bemused response, 'I do not know', when asked the name of the animal, appears to be entirely fictional; rather more prosaically, the word kangaroo comes from a native word ganurru. The word and the animal were introduced to the English in an account of Captain Cook's expedition of 1770. Shortly after this, during his tour of the Hebrides, Dr Johnson is reputed to have performed an imitation of the animal, gathering up the tails of his coat to resemble a pouch and bounding across the room. Later voyages to Botany Bay brought English settlers into contact with Aboriginals who knew the kangaroo by the alternative name patagaran, but who subsequently adopted the word kangaroo. Kangaroo, therefore, is an interesting example of a word borrowed into one Aboriginal language from another, via European settlers.


American Heritage Dictionary Notes ꡤkangaroo ׻ȡ

Horobin, Simon. How English Became English: A Short History of a Global Language. Oxford: OUP, 2016.

Referrer (Inside): [2026-02-08-1]

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2017-08-30 Wed

#3047. ؼԤȵϼԤäɬ [prescriptive_grammar][prescriptivism][speed_of_change]

ФƤȤ٤˴ؤơФХץθؼԤȥݥԥ顼ʸ쥳ơΩ롥ؼԤϡҼŪΩꡤѲѰۤϸܼǤꡤͰŪ˥ȥ뤹뤳ȤʤɤǤʤȹͤƤ롥ϼŪʥơϡŪŪʸˡʸˡιܤæꤢѤȤǺᤷѤĥ롥
Τ褦ξԤϤФΩ뤬ºݤ˲в֤򻶤餹ȤȤϰճȤʤȯŸȤҲŪʸݤˤʤȤȤϡޤʤΤܤǤѸǤ⤽Τ褦ʥϳ̵ǤϤʤΤΡ̱Ūˤʤ뤳ȤϾʤνäʿ¤ݻƤȤФʤΤ⤷ʤͳߤ̵ؿ̵ܿˤȤΤ䤷ؼԤϼŪѤȤɤ礦򤷤äͤǡݥԥ顼ʸ˻äƤȤϡäȤäƤ褤ϼΥơȤ˼򷹤뤳ȤɬפȻפС褬ˡäƤȤŪ꤫Ϥޤäˤ衤˸Ȥϲɤ٤Ȥä˿εäƤǽ⤤̤ȤơͿԤߤʤˤĤƿ˹ͤ뵡Ȥʤ롥餷Ȥ
Horobin (165--66) ⡤ǯǤ줿Ѹ˳᤯ξϤǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

The dismissive manner in which professional linguists have typically ignored prescriptivist approaches has also contributed to the lack of dialogue and continued misinformation. Since prescriptivist approaches are widely held and have a demonstrable impact upon the use of English and its future, it is clearly incumbent upon professional linguists to accord its proponents due attention and to engage in public debate.


ҸؤȵϼδطˤĤƤϡʲε⻲Ȥ줿#1229. ϼ4Ĥή ([2012-09-07-1])#1684. ʸˡȵʸˡ ([2013-12-06-1])#1929. ؤΩ줫鵬ϼŪѤɤ٤ ([2014-08-08-1])#2630. ϼѸˡʵҡˤ礹뤳ȤˤĤơ ([2016-07-09-1])#2631. Curzan ۩ָǤꡤϼɤǤס ([2016-07-10-1])

Horobin, Simon. How English Became English: A Short History of a Global Language. Oxford: OUP, 2016.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-05-29-1] [2018-06-02-1]

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2017-08-29 Tue

#3046. 8񎼷ugust?? [calendar][etymology][latin][personal_name][month]

Ĥδ֤ˤĤޤꡤäͼ٤βʹȤʤä8⽪˶ŤƤ롥ʤˡ̾꡼ (month) Ρ8פϤ褦
Ѹ August (BC 63--14 AD) ϡ޹ Augustus Caesar ˤʤࡥ8ˡϷ Augustus ˷ɰդɽȤȤΥƥ Sextīlis mēnsis 6ηˤ夨ƿѤΤǤ롥Ȥ̾Ȥꡤʬηʸߤ3ˤǯϤȤŤ6ηʸߤ8ˤؤAugustus ˤȤäƤ⤳ηϱﵯΤäȤ졤η31Τ㥫 (Julius Caesar) 7ʤΤäơ21åäȤ롥
űѸǤ wēod-mōnaþ (weed month) ȸƤФƤˤʤȥƥ줫 August äƤѸǤ August Τۤե󥹸줫Ѥ줿 aust, aoust Ѥ줿
ܸDZ8ؤշפϡĥȯפȤ⡤ڤդפȤ롥ϡ֤ϤĤפȯ줿

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2017-08-28 Mon

#3045. punctuation εǽ¿ [punctuation][writing]

#574. punctuation 4Ĥεǽ ([2010-11-22-1]) ǡCrystal αѸɴʻŵˡ (punctuation) 4ĤεǽҲ𤷤Ʊ Crystal ˡŰŪ Making a Point κǸ˶ᤤȤǡ̤ڤˡεǽ¿⤷Ƥ롥

For a long time, . . . people thought there were only two functions to punctuation: a guide to pronunciation and a guide to grammar. There are far more . . . . There is a ludic function, seen in poetry, informal letters, and many online settings where people are playing with punctuation. There is a psycholinguistic function, facilitating easy processing by writer and reader. There is a sociolinguistic function, contributing to rapport between users. There is a stylistic function, providing genres with some of their orthographic identity. (346)


ƯϡȯʸˡΥɰʳˤ⤢Ȥ㤨СͷӤȤƤζ롥ӥ᡼ʤɤѤ#808. smileys or emoticons ([2011-07-14-1]) ΰˤߤ褦ʡ硼ȤƤζѤʤɤ
ŪʵǽȤƤϡ㤨ʬݤˡ롼ȤƤɬ⥫ޤɬפʤǤ⡤ĹˤäƤɤ߼βϤΤ䤹θƥޤۤ褤
ҲŪʵǽ뤤ϼҲŪʵǽȤäƤ褤⤷ʤ㤨зӥ᡼ʤɤǴɽ魯 smileys ʸź뤳ȤˤäơȤδطĴԤʤ褦ʥ롥
ʸŪʵǽȤϡ㤨зӥ᡼ΥƥȤͭζˡѤ뤳Ȥˤꡤ줬ӥ᡼ΥƥȤȤ°뤳ȤɸȤ褦ʥؤ
ͤƤߤС϶ˡεǽǤФ꤫褽ֻεǽǤ⤢ȤäƤ褤ˡֻʸʤɤν񤭸դǤϡ줾¤¿¿ͤʵǽ̤ƤΤǤ롥

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Crystal, David. Making a Point: The Pernickety Story of English Punctuation. London: Profile Books, 2015.

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2017-08-27 Sun

#3044. űѸˤʬ [punctuation][writing][manuscript][oe][distinctiones]

ѸʬˤĤơʲεˤƤ#1112. ʬ (1) ([2012-05-13-1])#1113. ʬ (2) ([2012-05-14-1])#2695. Ѹˤʬ񤭤ζ̡ ([2016-09-12-1])#2696. ʬ񤭡ɽꥹȶΥƥȲؤΤ ([2016-09-13-1])#2970. ʬ񤭤ȯ³񤭤 ([2017-06-14-1])#2971. ʬ񤭤϶ˡΤȯ㥠([2017-06-15-1])
Ūʸȸʬ񤭤ϡűѸǤϤޤˤȯãƤʤäʬ䤹ˡϳΤϺƤˡȤˤƤ⡤λȤϤƤӤƤ餺ˤȯŸӾȤʳˤߤΤǤ롥1ȤơȤȤ <> ѤƤ Bede Historia Ecclesiastica, III, Bodleian Library, Tanner MS 10, 54r. Ƭ4ԤƸ褦Crystal 19ˡ

Bede,

ÞAǷÆSGEWORDENYMB

syx hund ƿyntra7feower7syxtig æft(er) drihtnes
menniscnesseeclipsis solisþæt is sunnanaspru
ngennis

then was happened about
six hundred wintersand sixty-four after the lord's
incarnation(in Latin) eclipse of the sunthat is sun eclipse


ޤ2ʬ񤭤츫Ȥǽκ򼨤ȤʤʻѤƤȤܤޤδФȤƤϡʬ䤹٤Ȥʬ䤬ʤ7 [= "and"] μաˡդʬ䤹٤ǤʤȤʬ䤬̾ GEWORDENYMB ˤߤƬȸ촴δ֡ˤȤⶽ̣
ʬ񤭤硤񤭤ξˤϸȸδ֤ˤɤΤ餤ζ뤫Ȥ꤬ꡤʬ䵡ǽǽ뤬ϡʸΥȥͻ礷ʤ¤˶֤ǤǤƤȤǤƤΤǡͭϤ褦˻פ롥
ϡѸ˸¤餺ν񵭤ˤФи줿ʶˡ1ĤȤäƤ褤ܸǤ⡤üˡäƳƤ롥

Crystal, David. Making a Point: The Pernickety Story of English Punctuation. London: Profile Books, 2015.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-12-22-1]

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2017-08-26 Sat

#3043. ѸμΨ [literacy][demography][spelling][lexicology]

μҲμΨ뤳Ȥϰ̤񤷤ѸαѸҲˤĤơʬäƤ뤳Ȥ롥ʲ˥⤷Ƥ
ޤFairman (265) ϡ19ξȤƼλ¤ŦƤ롥

1) In some parts of England 70% of the population could not write . . . . For them English was only sound, and not also marks on paper.
2) Of the one-third to 40% who could write, less than 5% could produce texts near enough to schooled English --- that is, to the type of English taught formally --- to have a chance of being printed.


Simon (160) ϡ19μΨηä˽ͤäˤĤƿƤ롥

The nineteenth century witnessed a huge increase in literacy, especially in the second half of the century. In 1850 30 per cent of men and 45 per cent of women were unable to sign their own names; by 1900 that figure had shrunk to just 1 per cent for both sexes.


Τ褦ʼΨȴϢơTieken-Boon van Ostade (45--46) λֻˤĤƤ롥Ϥ椨˽ش֤ûȾüֻ餷ʤäҶϡñ֤ˤʤäΤȤϡϤ褽֤뤬ۤ¿줫ʤƥե󥹸줫μѸ֤ʤȤ̣롥ʸΥ٥ι⤤Ѹͳ˰ʤ褦ǤϼҲŪˤ̵ܤȤߤʤΤ顤Ͻ񤭸դˤ¥ɡ (restricted code) ˴Ť󤸤򤨤ʤäɽƤ褤
Ψֻ顤ȼѸ졤¥ɡϸȼҲ򼨤ɤǤ롥

Fairman, Tony. "Letters of the English Labouring Classes and the English Language, 1800--34." Insights into Late Modern English. 2nd ed. Ed. Marina Dossena and Charles Jones. Bern: Peter Lang, 2007. 265--82.
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. An Introduction to Late Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009.

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2017-08-25 Fri

#3042. Ѹ³ˡλѤäͳ [subjunctive][lmode][prescriptive_grammar][prescriptivism][sociolinguistics][synthesis_to_analysis][drift][mandative_subjunctive]

Ѹˤˤ³ˡϡͿˤ򤿤ɤäƤȤäƤ褤Τ˸Ǥⴰ˾ä櫓ǤϤʤ#326. The subjunctive forms die hard. ([2010-03-19-1]) #325. mandative subjunctive should ([2010-03-18-1]) Ǥ⿨줿̤ꡤǴ궯Ѥ³ƤꡤषѤƤȤܤΰ褹餢롥³ˡοϡ礫ʬϤظѸˤΰŪʸѲĬή (synthesis_to_analysis) ˾äƤꡤ˾塤硹Ūʵή򼨤ȤϤʤ
硹ŪʵήϤʤäΤΡäȤήǤиѸˤä16޷˿ष³ˡϿΰӤéäƤ18Ⱦ19ˤơȤڵ򤬤롥Tieken-Boon van Ostade (84--85) Ϥͳ򡤸μҲư (social mobility) ȵʸˡαƶϤˤȤߤƤ롥

The subjunctive underwent a curious development during the LModE period. While its use had rapidly decreased since the end of the sixteenth century, it began to rise slightly during the second half of the eighteenth century and into the nineteenth, when there was a sharp decrease from around 1870 onwards . . . . The temporary rise of the subjunctive has been associated with the influence of normative grammar, and though, this may explain the increased use during the nineteenth century, when linguistic prescriptivism was at its height and its effects must have been felt, in the second half of the eighteenth-century it must have been because of the strong linguistic sensitivity among social climbers rather than the actual effect of the grammars themselves. This is evident in the language of Robert Lowth and his correspondents: in Lowth's own usage, there is an increase of the subjunctive around the time when his grammar was newly published, and with his correspondents we found a similar linguistic awareness that they were writing to a celebrated grammarian . . . .


Tieken-Boon van Ostade ϡʸˡαƶϤäȤƤ⤪餯ŪǤꡤȤ櫓18Ⱦ³ˡäΤäȶ "social climbers" ԡˤξ徺ָȿǤռˤȤߤƤ롥
³οѸˤΡּʡήȤߤʤΤǤСѸΤäȤήϡʹּҲΤֿ͹Ūˡ߽ФήȤȤˤʤ#2631. Curzan ۩ָǤꡤϼɤǤס ([2016-07-10-1]) Ȥפʤ

Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. An Introduction to Late Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009.

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2017-08-24 Thu

#3041. ḽˤ semicolon [punctuation][statistics]

ε#3040. űѸ줫ѸˤѤ줿ֵٻߡפɽ魯ɵ ([2017-08-23-1]) ˰³ɵ (punctuation) ꡥ<;> (semicolon) ϡ#2666. Ѹ԰ʶˡ ([2016-08-14-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ16ȾˤʤäƤ褦䤯Ѥ褦ˤʤäԤǤ롥θ塤ɵ¿Ѥ "heavy style" ߤ18ˤϤ˳ˤƿषƤƤ롥ḽˤۤ semicolon ˴ؤơCrystal (207) ʸϤ̣

It's often been reported that the semicolon is going out of fashion, and the evidence (from the study of large collections of written material) does support a steady drop in frequency during the twentieth century. (They're much more common in British English than American English.) A typical finding is to see that 90 per cent of all punctuation marks are either periods or commas, and semicolons are just a couple of percent. The figure was much higher once. The semicolon had its peak in the eighteenth century, when long sentences were thought to be a feature of an elegant style, heavy punctuation was in vogue, and punctuation was becoming increasingly grammatical. The rot set in during the nineteenth century, when the colon became popular, and took over some of the semicolon's functions. The economics of the telegraph (the shorter the message, the cheaper) fostered short sentences. And today it has virtually disappeared from styles where sentences tend to be short, such as on the Internet.


ǶܤǤ⡤Twitter ʤɤαƶǡñʻ׹ͤûʸǽ񤯤ȤǤޤȤޤä׹ͤĹʸǽ񤯤ȤǤʤͤƤȤȤʹ뤬ϢưʸϤ񤯥Ѥɵμ٤ѲȤΤϳΤˤꤽǤ롥semicolon Ȥ̣ȾüʶɵɤȤˤäơषơλʸϥħ⤭ĦˤʤȤΤϤ⤷塤semicolon ϸꤵ줿ƥȥפǤܤˤʤ쥢ʶɵˤʤäƤǽ⤢ꤽ

Crystal, David. Making a Point: The Pernickety Story of English Punctuation. London: Profile Books, 2015.

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2017-08-23 Wed

#3040. űѸ줫ѸˤѤ줿ֵٻߡפɽ魯ɵ [punctuation]

ѸDz餫Υ٥Ρֵٻߡפɽ魯ɽŪʶɵȤƤϡ<.> (period, full stop), <!> (exclamation mark), <?> (question mark), <;> (semicolon), <:> (colon), <,> (comma) 롥ˤϸűѸ˵ͭΤ⤢СäȸȯΤΤ⤢롥 Crystal (24--26) 򻲾Ȥʤ顤űѸ줫ѸˤѤƤֵٻߡפɽ魯4μפʶɵҲ𤷤褦

(1) punctus versusȤƤϸ <;> (semicolon) ˶ᤤȤƤĽҤν򼨤 <.> (period, full stop) 롥

(2) punctus elevatusȤƤϸ <;> (semicolon) ž󤵤ΡʤĤޤ걦˸äƤҤӤˤǤꡤ徺ȥ͡ȼʸεٻߤѤ줿ȤС"When you arrive (2), get a key from the porter (1). When you leave (2), hand it in at reception (1)." Τ褦ˡ(2) ΰ֤ punctus elevatus (1) ΰ֤ punctus versus ŵŪѤ줿

(3) punctus interrogativus뵿ʸˤդ뵿ȤȤηϸߤ <?> ǤϤʤξ˱˿Ӥ <~> ä줿褦ʵäpunctus elevatus ʤ꤯ͤä緶ʤҤˡ

(4) punctus admirativus ޤ punctus exclamativusѸ14ȾƳ줿ò䡥ȤȤηϡ˷ <:> (colon) ξĹ礬ĤΤä줬 <!> ȤȯŸ

ƥ positurae (positions) ȸƤФ줿ζɵ椬Ѥ褦ˤʤΤ8ʹߤΤȤǤꡤ(4) Τ褦ѸǽƸ줿Τ⤢Сۤ˶ѸˤʤäƳΩٺ餭ΤΤ⤢롥Ϣơ#575. Ū punctuation ˤ500ǯۤɡ ([2010-11-23-1])#2666. Ѹ԰ʶˡ ([2016-08-14-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Crystal, David. Making a Point: The Pernickety Story of English Punctuation. London: Profile Books, 2015.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-08-24-1]

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2017-08-22 Tue

#3039. Ϣ8֤ʤ֥ˡ§פѸ˾פʤΤ [grimms_law][consonant][loan_word][sound_change][phonetics][french][latin][indo-european][etymology][cognate][germanic][romance][verners_law][sgcs][link][rensai]

դǡѸϢָܴѸѸˤλ֤ͤʤ֥ˡ§פѸ˾פʤΤޤˡ§ (grimms_law) ˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ֤ⷫ夲ƤޤϢܵǤϽ鿴Ԥˤʤ٤狼䤹ˡ§βѲμ˱ѸؽΩĤ⤷ޤ
Ϣܵɤˡ#103. ˡ§Ȥϲ ([2009-08-08-1]) ӡ#102. hundred ˡ§ ([2009-08-07-1]) ɤǤȡˤʤȻפޤ
ϢܵǤϡˡ§Ρ֤ʤפˤĤƤϡ⤤ῨƤޤ󤬡ؿϲؤ˸ؤδ#650. ˥ȥˡ§ ([2011-02-06-1]) #794. ˡ§Ȼη֡ ([2011-06-30-1])#1121. Grimm's Law Ϥʤ ([2012-05-22-1]) 򤴻Ȥ
ˡ§䴰ͥˡ§ (verners_law) ˤĤƤϡ#104. hundred ͥˡ§ ([2009-08-09-1])#480. father ͥˡ§ ([2010-08-20-1])#858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1]) ޤξˡ§碌ơ1ޥҲܡ (First Germanic Consonant Shift) ȸƤ֤ȤϢܵǿޤǤϡ2ޥҲܡפΤȵˤʤϡ#405. Second Germanic Consonant Shift ([2010-06-06-1]) ȡ#416. Second Germanic Consonant Shift Ϥʤä ([2010-06-17-1]) ΤɤߤѸȥɥĸλҲбˤĤƶ뤳ȤǤޤ

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2017-08-21 Mon

#3038. űѸ쥢ե٥åȤ27ʸ [alphabet][oe][ligature][thorn][th][grapheme]

ѸΥե٥åȤ26ʸȷޤäƤ뤬Ѹˤγʳǥե٥åȤʸμοϡ¿򷫤֤Ƥ㤨иűѸǤϡѸˤʸΤ3ĤȤƤ餺դ˸űѸͭʸ4Ĥۤɤä26 - 3 + 4 = 27 ȤȤǡűѸΥե٥åȤˤ27ʸäȤˤʤ롥

PDEa bcdefghijklmnopqrst  uvwxyz 
OEaæbcdefghi (k)lmnop(q)rstþðu ƿ(x)y(z) 


#17. դ٤űѸ֤ȯ ([2009-05-15-1]) ɽȤϼ㴳ۤʤ뤬űѸ¸ߤϤۤɤѤʤʸ򥢥ե٥åȡåȤ˴ޤ뤫ޤʤΰ㤤ˤʤɽˤƥåǼȤꡤűѸǤ <k>, <q>, <x>, <z> ϤۤȤɻȤƤ餺ηŪˤ̵뤷Ƥ褤餤ΤΤǤ롥
űѸͭʸȤդ٤ΤФС(1) <a> <e> ι (ligature) Ǥ <æ> (ash)(3) th ̵ͭξˤɽ魯 <þ> (thorn) ȡƱ (3) <ð> (eth)(4) <w> ƱǽѤ줿 <ƿ> (wynn) 롥
ѸΥե٥åȤ26ʸȤΤϤޤǵȤʤ¤ΤƱ26ʸǤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤФѤʤȤϸڤʤˤβǺޤ26ʸʤΤǧ뤳ȤɬפǤ롥

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2017-08-20 Sun

#3037. <ee>, <oo> ϤΤ <aa>, <ii>, <uu> ϤʤΤϤʤ [spelling][vowel][spelling][minim][sobokunagimon]

Ѹֻ feet, greet, meet, see, weed ʤ <ee> ѽФ뤷foot, look, mood, stood, took Τ褦 <oo> ̤˸롥٤ơaardvark, bazaar, naan Τ褦 <aa> ϵä <ii>, <uu> ۤȤɸʤȤäƤ褤Ĺ첻ɽ魯Τ첻ŤͤȤΤϡƼŪȯۤȻפ뤬ʤΤ褦ФäʬۤˤʤäƤΤ
űѸǤϡû첻Ȥ򿭤ФĹ첻̤ɸΤ̤ˡϤʤä"God" "good" бϤȤ god ֤줿witan û i ȯ "to know" ΰ̣θ졤Ĺ i ȯ "to look" ΰ̣θȤʤäѸˤʤȡΤ褦첻Ĺûζ̤Ĥ褦ȡĤˡԤ߽Ф줿ˡϤ褽Ѹ˻ĤäƤꡤ<ae>, <ei>, <eo>, <ie>, <oe> Τ褦˰ۤʤʣ첻Ȥ߹碌Τ⤢С<a .. e>, <i .. e>, <u .. e> ʤɱŪȤ߹碌ˡ⤢äľŪˡƱ첻Ťͤ <aa>, <ee>, <ii>, <oo>, <uu> ʤɤ⤢äñˤꡤ뤤ϤñΤäƤȯˤ˹ä𤬤ʤǡŵŪ֤ʤƤäƱ첻Ťͤ˴ؤƤϡ<ee>, <oo> Ĥääʤ
<ee> <oo> ݻ䤹üʻ𤬤äȤϡष <aa>, <ii>, <uu> ѤˤͳäȹͤۤǤ롥ȤΤϾ˽Ҥ٤褦ˡ첻ŤͤȤϤȹͤ졤줬Ѥʤͳõۤưפ˻פ뤫
<ii> <uu> 򤱤줿Τ䤹ˤƤϡֻϤդʤ (minim) ΤߤǹƤꡤ줾 <ıı>, <ıııı> ֤줿Τ褦ʣν󤹤ȡտޤƤΤɤʸʤȤ߹碌ˤʤΤɤ߼ˤȤäʬˤʤ뤫㤨С<ıııı> Ȥֻ򸫤Ƥ⡤տޤƤΤ <iiii>, <ini>, <im>, <mi>, <nn>, <nu>, <un>, <wi> Τɽ魯ʸ̮򻲾ȤʤФ狼ʤϢơ#91. ʤ;ñ̾ I ʸǽ񤯤 ([2009-07-27-1])#223. woman ȯֻ ([2009-12-06-1])#870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1])#1094. <o> ֻ /u/ 첻ɽ魯 ([2012-04-25-1])#2227. ʤ <u> ǽñ줬ʤΤ ([2015-06-02-1])#2450. Ѹˤ <u> <o> ˤѡ ([2016-01-11-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
<aa> ˤĤƤϡʤ줬ѤʤäΤ񤷤Ѹˤϡ<aa> ֤ñ⤤ĤäʤäCrystal (46) ϡ"aa never survived, probably because the 'silent' e spelling had more quickly established itself as the norm, as in name, tale, etc." ȹͤƤ뤬⤦ȤƤäϤΤߤȤ
ɡä˺꤬ʤʤޤĤäΤ <ee>, <oo> ȤȤϢơ#2092. ե٥åȤ첻ľɽ魯Τ ([2015-01-18-1]) ӡ#2887. Ϣ3֤ʤѸ첻ɽΤʤΤס ([2017-03-23-1]) 򻲾

Crystal, David. Spell It Out: The Singular Story of English Spelling. London: Profile Books, 2012.

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2017-08-19 Sat

#3036. Lowth ζؤˡˡ [prescriptive_grammar][lowth]

Tieken-Boon van Ostade ͤ (553--55) ˡ"LOWTH'S NORMATIVE STRICTURES" ΰǤƤA Short Introduction to English Grammar 1762ǯνǤäƤΤǤ롥˺ϿȤưʲ˵ϿƤ

Adjectives used as adverbs (pp. 124--5)
As
instead of relative that or which (pp. 151--2)
improperly omitted, e.g. so bold to pronounce (p. 152)
Be for have with mutative intransitive verbs (p. 63)
Because expressing motive or end (instead of that) (pp. 93--4)
Do: scope in the sentence, e.g. Did he not fear and besought . . . (p. 117)
His for its (pp. 34--5)
Double comparatives
Lesser (p. 43)
Worser (p. 43)
Wrong degrees of comparison (easilier, highliest) (p. 91)
Fly for flee (p. 77)
-ing form
him descending vs. he descending (pp. 107--8)
the sending to them the light (pp. 111--13)
It is I
Whom for who (p. 106)
Lay for lie (p. 76)
Let with subject pronoun, e.g. let thee and I (p. 117)
Mood: consistent use (pp. 119--20)
Neither sometimes included in nor (pp. 149--50)
Never so (p. 147)
Not before finite (p. 116)
Nouns of multitude with plural finite (p. 104)
Past participle forms (pp. 86--8)
Sitten (pp. 75--6)
Chosed (p. 65)
Pronominalization/relativization problems (pp. 138--41)
Relative clause dangling (p. 124)
Relative and preposition omitted, e.g. in the posture I lay (p. 137)
So . . ., as for so . . ., that (pp. 150--1)
Subject
lacking, e.g. which it is not lawful to eat (pp. 110; 122--4)
superfluous after who (p. 135)
Tense: consistent use (pp. 117--19)
Than with pronoun following (pp. 144--7)
That including which: of that [which] is moved (p. 134)
That (conj.)
improperly accompanied by the subjunctive (p. 143)
omitted (p. 147)
This means/these means/this mean (p. 120)
To superfluous, e.g. to see him to do it (p. 109)
Verb forms
subjunctive verbs in the Indicative (wert for wast) (p. 52)
Thou might for thou mightest (pp. 97, 137)
I am the Lord that maketh . . .: first person subject with third person finite in relative clause (p. 136)
Thou for you
Who
Whom for who in subject position (p. 97)
Who for whom in object position (pp. 99, 127)
Whose as the possessive of which (p. 38)
Who used for as, e.g. no man so sanguine who did not apprehend (. . . so sanguine as to . . .) (p. 152)
Woe is me (p. 132); ah me (p. 153)
Ye for you in object position (pp. 33--4)
You was (pp. 48--9)
Various:
"Improper use of the Infinitive" (p. 111)
Sentences "abounding" with adverbs (p. 127)
"Disused in common discourse": whereunto, whereby, thereof, therewith (p. 131)
Improperly used: too . . ., that, too . . ., than, so . . ., but (pp. 152--3)


Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. "Eighteenth-Century Prescriptivism and the Norm of Correctness." Chapter 21 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 539--57.

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2017-08-18 Fri

#3035. Lowth ϤޤǤиƤʤä [prescriptive_grammar][lowth]

Robert Lowth θؤαƶϤϷפΤʤŪʲǤϡA Short Introduction to English Grammar (1762) Ǽ줿 Lowth εϤϡ༫ȤǤиΤǤȤΤơLowth ǸŪĴҤϡιԤȤƤΩȴطƤȤƤ
Tieken-Boon van Ostade (543) ˤСβɬäƤʤȤLowth ɾȤ¿ϡΥɥ綵ȤƤΩĴ뤬Lowth οΤ1777ǯΤȤǤ롥Τ˾Τܤ1766ǯˤ St. David's Oxford μ綵ȤʤäƤ뤬ˤƤ1762ǯʸˡνǤοǯΤȤǤ롥äơֹԤˤդ路ǤиפȤɾϡʥȤȤˤʤ롥
ޤLowth δǤΥ᡼ˤĤƤ򤬤褦ƱԤǤ William Melmoth (1710--99) A Short Introduction to English Grammar νǤФƻܤLowth Ȥ2 (1763) Τ˼줿Ȥ¤롥ˡǤνʸˤ Lowth ɼԤ˲Τξ󶡤ľ˸ƤӤƤΤ

If those, who are qualified to judge of such matters, and do not look upon them as beneath their notice, shall so far approve of it, as to think it worth a revisal, and capable of being improved into something really useful; their remarks and assistance, communicated through the hands of the Bookseller, shall be received with all proper deference and acknowledgement. (1762: xv; quoted in Tieken-Boon van Ostade, 543.)


äȤ⡤νʸʸϤμҸᤫ⤷ʤˤ衤Lowth Υ᡼ϸεʸˡΤʤǺ夲졤¿쾯ʤĥƤΤǤ뤳ȤϳΤ

Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. "Eighteenth-Century Prescriptivism and the Norm of Correctness." Chapter 21 of ''The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 539--57.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-05-28-1]

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2017-08-17 Thu

#3034. 2Ĥȸó׿ (2) [lexicology][history][war]

ε ([2017-08-16-1]) ǡ褬ä˵ڤܤƶˤĤƼ夲2Ĥ󤲤͡Ѹ줬ޤȤΤϼʤȤǤꡤ٤ȤǤϤʤȡ׸ó׿Ȥ˴ϢŤΤɤϿŤĴ٤ɬפ롥ȤΤϡष2Ĥˤϡó׿Ū˾ʤäȤǡ뤫
Beal (29--34) A Chronological English Dictionary ˴ŤνϿǯĴˤȡճʤȤˡ1915--19ǯ1944--45ǯ˿ƳëƤ롥ǯϤ礦ξषó׿㤷äΤǤϤʤͽۤǤ롥
ǽפʤΤϡλˡפ¾λ٤¿äȤϼװʳοޤ᤿¿äȤϸ¤ʤȤԤ䤿⡤λˡפõ᤿ꡤ̤ȤƤĤ򸫽ФȤˤʤ뤬Ϥλο¿äȤȤƱǤϤʤȤƤʤäȤǽ뤷¡ĴˤФ̤äΤBeal (33) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

[W]ar does not stimulate lexical innovation: although the loan-words from allies and enemies alike are noticed during and after these conflicts, they are not great in number.


ͽۤȿˤϿ줬ʤȤηȤʤä줬ȤȡäʤϤǶ̣Ȥʤ롥

Beal, Joan C. English in Modern Times: 1700--1945. Arnold: OUP, 2004.

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2017-08-16 Wed

#3033. 2Ĥȸó׿ (1) [lexicology][history][semantic_change][neologism][war]

Baugh and Cable (293--94) ˤСϸäγ׿⤿餹ȤȤ狼롥˴ؤ뿷 (neologism) 줿Ѥ줿ꤹۤ¸θΰ̣ͤѲ뤳ȤޤᡤȤŪϸä礭ʱƶڤܤΤ餷󤲤Ƥߤ褦
1914--18ǯˤơ1ľŪʱƶˤꡤä˳׿⤿餵줿air raid ʶˡantiaircraft gun ʹˤˡtank ֡ˡblimp ʾˡgas mask ʥޥˡliaison officer Ϣˤʤɤθ줬줿ѸȤƤϡե󥹸줫 camouflage º̡ˤä¸θǸѲΤȤƤϡsector ˡbarrage ˡdud ȯơˡace ͥѥåȡˤ롥ѸäΤ̤Ѥ褦ˤʤäȤǤϡhand grenade ʼơˡdugout ɶˡmachine gun ʵؽơˡperiscope ˾ˡno man's land ӡˡdoughboy Ʒʼˤʤɤ롥¾blighty ܹԤˤʤ褦ˡslacker ʼԡˡtrench foot Ϲ­ˡcootie ʥХˡwar bride ֲǡˤʤɤη¯줬󤲤롥
1٤2Ϥۤɸó׿򴬤ʤäȤϤʤ̿졦ˡǧ롥alert ʶˡblackout ƻˡblitz ŷ⹶ˡblockbuster 緿ơˡdive-bombing ʵ޹߲ˡevacuate 񤵤ˡair-raid shelter ɶˡbeachhead ʶƬȡˡparachutist ʼˡparatroop ʼˡlanding strip ʲ߳ϩˡcrash landing ƹΦˡroadblock ϩХꥱɡˡjeep ʥסˡfox hole ʤĤܹˡbulldozer ʥ֥ɡˡdecontamination ǽˡtask force ʵưˡresistance movement ʥ쥸󥹡ˡradar ʥ졼ˤ󤲤롥ưȤƤϡto spearhead ƬΩġˡto mop up Ƥˡappease ͨˤ󤲤ƤѸȤƤϡɥĸ줫 flack жͷˡݥȥ줫commando ʴˤ롥ήԤȤƤϡpriority ͥˡtooling up ʵˡbottleneck ʾ㳲ˡceiling ʺǹ١ˡbacklog ʻ̳ˡstockpile ߡˡlend-lease Ϳˡ
ѸȤƤϡiron curtain ŴΥƥˡcold war ˡfellow traveler ʥѡˡfront organization ʤߤȿˡpolice state ʷٻȡˤ롥

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-08-17-1]

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2017-08-15 Tue

#3032. ӤȶӤζά [comparison][synthesis_to_analysis][lmode]

ɸˤĤơ#403. ή˵դäƤӵˡ ([2010-06-04-1])#773. PPCMBE COHA ӡ ([2011-06-09-1])#2346. more, most ѤӤȯã ([2015-09-29-1]) Ǽ夲ƤѸˤϡ -er, -est դӤ more, most ֤뱪ŪʶӤ礷Ƥˤ롥ʣˤ Kytö and Romaine Τ褯ޤȤƤΤǡѤ (196) ҤϸѸʹߤˤΤߤˤȤȤƤΤϡűѸǤ϶ӤʤäѸ˿ʶӤ饤ХȤƽиȤήǤ롥

[W]e have an interesting case of competition between the two variants. We found that the use of the newer periphrastic forms peaked during the Late Middle English period, but the older inflectional type has been regaining lost ground since the Early Modern period. In that period both types compete rather evenly. By the Modern English period, however, the inflectional forms have reasserted themselves and outnumber the periphrastic forms by roughly 4 to 1 . . . . We have established that the crucial period during which the inflectional forms increase and the periphrastic forms decrease to achieve their present-day distribution occurs during the Late Modern English period, i.e. post 1710 . . . .


ѸˤơξӷζʬˤĤƤϡֺ𤷤§ƤפȤɾϤΤΡʵҤ񤷤ޤŪˤ#403. ή˵դäƤӵˡ ([2010-06-04-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ礫ʬϤظѸˤΰŪʸѲĬή (synthesis_to_analysis) ȿ뤫Τ褦ưѻʤɡ椬¿
ˤ衤ߤʬۤδäǤϤ᤿Τ300ǯۤˤʤȤΤϡճȤаճǤ롥

Kytö, Merja and Suzanne Romaine. "Adjective Comparison in Nineteenth-Century English." Nineteenth-Century English: Stability and Change. Ed. Merja Kytö, Mats Rydén, and Erik Smitterberg. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 194--214.

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2017-08-14 Mon

#3031. have λ be λ --- Auxiliary Selection Hierarchy [perfect][auxiliary_verb]

ɸϡѸˤˤ봰λɽ魯¤ѰۤѲ礭1ĤǤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ#2490. λʸhave + ʬפεȯã ([2016-02-20-1])#1653. be λˡ ([2013-11-05-1])#1814. 18--19 be λο CLMET dzǧ ([2014-04-15-1]) ʤɤεǼ夲ƤѸ˸¤餺¾θˤ⡤have λ be λʬۤ䤽Ѳäꡤ#2634. 衼åѤˤ뱪λϰ (1) ([2016-07-13-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦̸ŪʸʤƤ
⤦1Ĥ̸Ū෿ŪʸȤơSorace 󤲤褦Sorace 衼åѤνӤhave λ be λѰۤѲϥǤϤʤưΰ̣Ūˤͽ¬ǤȤ "Auxiliary Selection Hierarchy" ƤûˤС (aspect) ȼ (theme) δ顤ư˴ؤ "controlled process" 椵줿ˤɽ魯ưǤФۤɴλνưȤ have 䤹㤤 be 䤹ʤȤSorace (863) Υꥸʥοޤ򸫤䤹 Los (76) ˤǤƸ褦

change of location verbs (arrive)most likely to select be
change of state verbs (become)
continuation of pre-existing state (remain)
existence of state (be, sit, lie)
uncontrolled process (tremble, skid, sneeze)
controlled process (motional) (swim, run, cycle)
controlled process (nonmotional) (work, play)most likely to select have


γشطϤΤޤ෿δް (typological implication) ɽ路Ƥꡤ㤨пޤΤ볬ؤư줬 have λäƤСʲư⤹٤ have λϤǤ롤ɤळȤǤ롥 have λȤѲνͽ¬ˤĤʤ롥󡤸ˤäơޤƱǤʳˤäơؤΤɤʬƤΤϰۤʤξλ¤ʬۤˤĤưŪͽ¬ǽˤǥȤܤͤ롥

Sorace, A. "Gradients in Auxiliary Selection with Intransitive Verbs." Language 76 (2000): 859--90.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-07-31-1]

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2017-08-13 Sun

#3030. on foot afoot ؤʸˡȽز [grammaticalisation][clitic]

ɽϡ#2723. ֻ on ˤ n æ ([2016-10-10-1]) ȡ#2948. Ϣ5alive ˸ءס ([2017-05-23-1])Ϣܵalive ˸ءǼ夲Ƥʸˡ (grammaticalisation) 1ȤƤȤ館뤳ȤҲ𤷤
Los (43) ˤСon foot afoot ؤѲϡΧ֡졤äΤ٤Ƥ¦̤ˤơʸˡŵŪˤߤħ򼨤

 on foot > afoot
Prosodystress is reduced
Phonology[on] > [ə]: final -n is lost, vowel is reduced
Morphologyon is a free word, a- a bound morpheme
Syntaxon foot is a phrase (a PP), afoot is a head (an adverb)
Lexiconon has a concrete spatial meaning, a- has a very abstract, almost aspectual meaning ('in progress'); afoot no longer refers to people being on their feet, i.e. active, but to things being in operation: the game is afoot


ʸˡˤƶ̣Ȥϡon foot afoot ʸˡȸȤƤ⡤on foot ä˻ĤäƤ뤳ȤĤޤꡤֻ on foot afoot ִ줿櫓ǤϤʤֻ礫줬ΩȤ٤Ǥꡤ̤Ȥξɽ㤨ƶ¸ƤΤǤ롥ƱȤϡɽΤˤĤƤǤϤʤñ̤ˤĤƤ⤤롥ֻ on ܸ (clitic) a- ִ줿櫓ǤϤʤֻ줫ܸ줬ΩȤȤֻ on Τ̵ǻĤäƤ롥
ʸˡθǡȤȤɽȿɽǽ㤨ƶ¸Ƥϡʸˡˤز (layering) θݤȤΤƤ롥ۤ󤲤С#2490. λʸhave + ʬפεȯã ([2016-02-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡλưȤƤ have ϡƱư줬ʸˡΤ̤ȤưȽư줬2Ĥؤʤƶ¸Ƥ롥٤Ƥʸˡλ㤬˰Ūʽز⤿餹櫓ǤϤʤŤǽѤƤޤ¿뤳ȤϳΤʸˡǽزȤݤˤդƤ

Los, Bettelou. A Historical Syntax of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-01-16-1]

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2017-08-12 Sat

#3029. 3Ĥμ [syntax][semantics][word_order][generative_grammar][semantic_role]

ؤˤ (syntax) Ȥϲ򰷤ʬʤΤȤ䤤ФϡɤΤ褦ʸǰƬˤƤ뤫ˤäưۤʤäƤ롥ŪѤ§ä绨Ĥ˸äƤޤСȤʸˤȸδط򰷤ʬǤꡤŵŪˤϸε§򵭽Ҥꡤ繽¤餫ˤꤹ뤳ȤɸȤ롥
⤦Ūβ󼨤ΤǤСLos "Three dimensions of syntax" ꤯󤷤Ƥ롥1ĤѤˤʤȤФʤΤɤǤʤۤɤȻפäΤǵƤ (Los 8)

1. How the information about the relationships between the verb and its semantic roles (AGENT, PATIENT, etc.) is expressed. This is essentially a choice between expressing relational information by endings (inflection), i.e. in the morphology, or by free words, like pronouns and auxiliaries, in the syntax.
2. The expression of the semantic roles themselves (NPs, clauses?), and the syntactic operations languages have at their disposal for giving some roles higher profiles than others (e.g. passivisation).
3. Word order.


Dimension 1 ϡư濴ȤƳ꿶̣䤬ޤʤɤηŪʤɽ蘆Τ֤ˤŪʤɽ蘆ΤȤ˴ط롥ԤμʤѤƤСʤȤʤ롥
Dimension 2 ϡ꿶줿̣䤬ʤɽˤäƼ¸Τ˴ͿʤѷˤȤä˾Ƥ롥
Dimension 3 ϡ̤ȤƼ¸ȸ֤˴ؤǤ롥

3ĤμϡǤŪǿŪ Dimension 1 顤ǤŪɽŪ Dimension 3 Ȥ¤٤Ƥ롥ʸˡѤ˴ŤΤǤ뤬褯󤵤줿ѤǤ롥

Los, Bettelou. A Historical Syntax of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.

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2017-08-11 Fri

#3028. She is believed to have done it. ιʸȸűѸ⡼ sceolde δط [syntax][auxiliary_verb][passive][ecm][passive][information_structure][grammaticalisation]

I believe that she has done it. Ȥʸ that Ѥ I believe her to have done it. ȥѥե졼뤳ȤǤ롥Ԥʸǡ֤ʤ׼Τ she ǤꡤʤʤηäƤ뤬ԤʸǤưμΤƱʪؤʤ her ŪʤηäƤ롥ϡΰ̣μǤϤ³ΤΡ1ʾˤ believe λ۲뤬椨ˡʤǤϤʤŪʤͿΤ롥ǤϡԤΤ褦ʳͿΤȤ Exceptional Case-Marking (= ECM) ȸƤǤ롥ޤbelieve μ뤳Τ褦ʹʸϡгդιʸȤΤ롥
believe ˤߤ褦ʥѥե졼ϡthink declare ɽֻ׹͡פפɽ魯ư¿ǽ̣ΤϡECM ʸϼư֤ѤΤ̤ȤȤǤ롥嵭Ϥǽư֤ʸ夲She is believed to have done it. Τ褦˼ư֤Ǹ뤳ȤΤۤŪ¿º say ʤɤǤϡǽư֤Ǥ ECM ʸϵƤ줺The disease is said to be spreading. Τ褦ˤäѤư֤Ǹ롥
μư֤ؤФϡʤʤΤ
1Ĥˤϡֻ׹͡פפˤƽפʤΤϡƤμǤ롥ʸǤСshe the disease Ǥꡤ줬ʸƬǼȤƸȤΤϡ¤⼫ľǤ롥
⤦1Ĥζ̣ѻϡis believed to ʤ is said to ʬΤȤ evidentiality ɽ魯⡼ʵǽӤӤƤȤΤĤޤꡤreportedly ۤɤ֤뤳ȤǤʵǽǤꡤŤѸǤ sceolde "should" Ȥˡưɽ蘆ƤǽǤ롥Los (151) ˤС

Another interesting aspect of passive ECMs is that they renew a modal meaning of sceolde 'should' that had been lost. Old English sceolde could be used to indicate 'that the reporter does not believe the statement or does not vouch for its truth' . . . :

Þa wæs ðær eac swiðe egeslic geatweard, ðæs nama sceolde bion Caron <Bo 35.102.16>
'Then there was also a very terrible doorkeeper whose name is said to be Caron'


The most felicitous PDE translation has a passive ECM.


̣Ǥϡbe believed to be said to be going to ʤɤƱ褦ˡưؤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ

Los, Bettelou. A Historical Syntax of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.

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2017-08-10 Thu

#3027. Ϥι [punctuation][writing][capitalisation][manuscript][printing]

ܸǤλϤ1ƽ񤭻ϤΤϤȤƤ롥ǯεϤȼɤϤƤˤĤƤϡ#2848. ּԤ1ʤס ([2017-02-12-1]) εǿ줿ǤϡѸˤĤƤϤɤ
ѸܤɤǤȤ狼Ȥꡤ̾ϹԤϿʸ٤λԤʤƤ롥ˤ̤κˡ⤢롥㤨СϹԤʤʤˡϤƬʸ¾ʸ礭ơʤȤʣԤι⤵ǡΩʤ "drop capital" λѤ롥ϡμܤˤơƱŪѤ줿礭ʸ˵ġ뤤ϡѼȹͤ뤬俷ʹεǤ褯ܤˤ褦ˡǽ1줫򤹤٤ʸǽ񤯤Ȥˡ⤢롥
⤦1դ٤ϡԤʤ鷺̤Ω⤷ʤ򳫻Ϥ뤳ȤȤȤϡϤ1ˤƤǤ롥Ϥ̾򼨤ԤľǤϡλϤǤ뤳ȤϼǤꡤ̤ʹޤ򤻤Ȥ褤ȤȤܸǤ1ȤɤΧ1򤹤ΤǡѸΤήϤˤŤ󤸤Ƥ뤫Τ褦˴롥
Ĺ餯αѸ񵭤ι˴äƤŪˤϤۤɸŤήǤϤʤ褦Crystal (131) ˤȡ100ǯۤˤϡ1Ȥɤ¾Ʊ褦˿ʸλԤʤΤ̾ä褦ɤΤȤˡ (punctuation) δϡˤϰˤ뤷house style ˤȤ礭٤ιλظǧˤ衤ˡޤŪʤΤǤϤʤȤȤ

Crystal, David. Making a Point: The Pernickety Story of English Punctuation. London: Profile Books, 2015.

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2017-08-09 Wed

#3026. ˤˤ How Why [historiography][history][causation][language_change][methodology][prediction_of_language_change]

˸ؤϸѲ򰷤ʬʤѲΤȤ (causation) õ椹ȤĤߤˤĤƤ͡Ω줬롥ܥ֥ǤѲ (language_change) Ρָסװסֶưϡפ͡Ƥ֤ʤפФϤ⤽¸ߤΤȤǰˤĤޤȤäƤ롥Ϳ줿餷ΤϡѲΡ֤ʤ (Why?) ФǤϤʤ֤ɤΤ褦ˡ (How?) ФˤʤΤǤϤʤȡѲ How Why ˤĤƤϡ#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1]) ȡ#2255. Ѳθɵ椹ͤˤĤơ ([2015-06-30-1]) ̡䤤Ǥ뤫Τ褦˰äƤ2Ĥ䤤ϤɤΤ褦ʴطˤΤ
ϢȤƤ Harari (265--66) ϡ˳ؤΩ줫餳ƤꡤWhy Ф How ν⤤Ƥ롥

What is the difference between describing 'how' and explaining 'why'? To describe 'how' means to reconstruct the series of specific events that led from one point to another. To explain 'why' means to find causal connections that account for the occurrence of this particular series of events to the exclusion of all others.
   Some scholars do indeed provide deterministic explanations of events such as the rise of Christianity. They attempt to reduce human history to the workings of biological, ecological or economic forces. They argue that there was something about the geography, genetics or economy of the Roman Mediterranean that made the rise of a monotheist religion inevitable. Yet most historians tend to be sceptical of such deterministic theories. This is one of the distinguishing marks of history as an academic discipline --- the better you know a particular historical period, the harder it becomes to explain why things happened one way and not another. Those who have only a superficial knowledge of a certain period tend to focus only on the possibility that was eventually realised. They offer a just-so story to explain with hindsight why that outcome was inevitable. Those more deeply informed about the period are much more cognisant of the roads not taken.


Ǥϡˤ Why ǤϤʤ How ƧߤȤɤޤʤ˳ؤȤϲΤˤΤHarari (48) ϲΤ뼡Τ褦ʸդǸڤ롥

So why study history? Unlike physics or economics, history is not a means for making accurate predictions. We study history not to know the future but to widen our horizons, to understand that our present situation is neither natural nor inevitable, and that we consequently have many more possibilities before us than we imagine. For example, studying how Europeans came to dominate Africans enables us to realise that there is nothing natural or inevitable about the racial hierarchy, and that the world might well be arranged differently.


̤ͽ¬˳ؤŪǤϤʤƱ褦ˡѲ򰷤˸ؤ⡤̤ͽ¬ŪȤƤʤ
ͽ¬ǽˤĤƤϡ#843. Ѳͽκ ([2011-08-18-1])#844. Ѳͽۤ뤳Ȥϴݤ ([2011-08-19-1])#1019. Ѳͽ¬ˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2012-02-10-1])#2154. Ѳͽ¬Բǽ ([2015-03-21-1])#2273. Ѳͽ¬ǽˤĤƺơ͡ ([2015-07-18-1]) ϤȤ (prediction_of_language_change) ε򻲾Ȥ줿

Harari, Yuval Noah. Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. 2011. London: Harvill Secker, 2014.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-12-13-1]

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2017-08-08 Tue

#3025. ʹ֤ϲΤ˸ǾΤ [origin_of_language][homo_sapiens][anthropology]

ۥ⥵ԥ󥹤ϸȤˤꡤ̤ξ˼¸ãǤ褦ˤʤäɤΤ褦ʾ򲿤Τ˸ΤHarari ˤСˤ2Ĥ⤬Ȥ1Ĥϡζ᤯˥饤󤬤⡤⤦1ĤϡֱáǤ롥ԤϿʹ֤̿ľܴؤؿüȯǤꡤԤϿʹ֤μҲܤǤ롥ޤԤ "the there-is-a-lion-near-the-river theory" ˤĤơHarari (24--25) ϼΤ褦롥

A green monkey can yell to its comrades, 'Careful! A lion!' But a modern human can tell her friends that this morning, near the bend in the river, she saw a lion tracking a herd of bison. She can then describe the exact location, including the different paths leading to the area. With this information, the members of her band can put their heads together and discuss whether they should approach the river, chase away the lion, and hunt the bison.


2ܤ "the gossip theory" ˤĤƤϡ̤ (Harari 25--26)

   A second theory agrees that our unique language evolved as a means of sharing information about the world. But the most important information that needed to be conveyed was about humans, not about lions and bison. Our language evolved as a way of gossiping. According to this theory Homo sapiens is primarily a social animal. Social cooperation is our key for survival and reproduction. It is not enough for individual men and women to know the whereabouts of lions and bison. It's much more important for them to know who in their band hates whom, who is sleeping with whom, who is honest, and who is a cheat.
   The amount of information that one must obtain and store in order to track the ever-changing relationships of even a few dozen individuals is staggering. (In a band of fifty individuals, there are 1,225 one-on-one relationships, and countless more complex social combinations.) All apes show a keen interest in such social information, but they have trouble gossiping effectively. Neanderthals and archaic Homo sapiens probably also had hard time talking behind each other's backs --- a much maligned ability which is in fact essential for cooperation in large numbers. The new linguistic skills that modern Sapiens acquired about seventy millennia ago enabled them to gossip for hours on end. Reliable information about who could be trusted meant that small bands could expand into larger bands, and Sapiens could develop tighter and more sophisticated types of cooperation.


Harari (27) ϡ餯2ĤȤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ϸεȽȯŸͤǽפʾ˸ȸǽܼŪȤʤäƤΤǤϤʤ

Harari, Yuval Noah. Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. 2011. London: Harvill Secker, 2014.

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2017-08-07 Mon

#3024. ΥפȱѸ̤ [future_of_english][linguistic_imperialism][historiography]

Harari Sapiens ˮإԥˡ١ˤΤʤǡΥ ("The Imperial Cycle") ƤƤ (226--27) ϰʲ6ʳʤ롥

1. A small group establishes a big empire.
2. An imperial culture is forged.
3. The imperial culture is adopted by the subject peoples
4. The subject peoples demand equal status in the name of common imperial values
5. The empire's founders lose their dominance
6. The imperial culture continues to flourish and develop

Υ뤬ޡ衼åѤˤƷ֤줿Ȥޤ衼åѤˤߤƱϡߡ4ʳդˤɤ夤Ƥ餷Harari (225) ۩

During the twentieth century, local groups that had adopted Western values claimed equality with their European conquerors in the name of these very values. Many anti-colonial struggles were waged under the banners of self-determination, socialism and human rights, all of which are Western legacies. Just as Egyptians, Iranians and Turks adopted and adapted the imperial culture that they inherited from the original Arab conquerors, so today's Indians, Africans and Chinese have accepted much of the imperial culture of their former Western overlords, while seeking to mould it in accordance with their needs and traditions.


(linguistic_imperialism) αѸɾˤСѸʼŪ¸ߡˤǤȤȤʤΤǡŸˤϡΥפѻ٤
Ѹϥ󥰥ͤξʽĤϤޤꡤ1500ǯۤɤŪʸؤȯŸƤ1ʳˡβDZѸʸޤ2ʳˡƤΡʵ˿̱Ϥο͡˼Ƥ3ʳˡߡʵ˿̱Ϥο͡ϡʬλȤѸѼ򽡼αѸѼƱ˰褦˵ϤƤ4ʳˡˤꡤ衤ŪݻƤαѸѼͥʤʤ5ʳˡơѸʸΤΤ˱ɤȯŸ³ƤȤˤʤ6ʳˡ
ΥפȤǥ򡤤Τ褦ñ˱ѸˤƤϤ뤳ȤϤ狼ʤѸβߡ̤ͤ뤦˼٤ǥǤ롥

Harari, Yuval Noah. Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. 2011. London: Harvill Secker, 2014.

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2017-08-06 Sun

#3023. ˥ۥ󤫥˥åݥ [japanese][kanji]

ꥹؤѸɽˤϡThe UK, Great Britain, Britain ʤʣ롥ˤĤƤ⡤The Netherlands Holland 2Ĥ롥ΰ㤤ʤɡѰỤ̄κϤˤ衤ҤȤɤιȤɬñ̾ΤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤȤΤϡ̯ʵʤǤʤ椬ϡܡפ뤤 Japan Ȥ̾Τ1ĤǤꡤäꤷƤ롥
ȸȤ¤ϡܡפˤϡ֥˥ۥפʤΤ֥˥åݥפʤΤɤƤȤ̯ʾ롥ѸǤ Japan Τۤ Nihon Nippon ȤƾΤ¤Ϥ뤫顤ܸˤȯɤ줬ѸˤȿǤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
֥˥ۥפ֥˥åݥפĹƤǤ롥ŪˤϡξȯϼĮ夢꤫³ƤΤ餷½ˡ⳰˥ۥȥ˥åݥΩƤξꡤ1934ǯʸ׻Ĵǡ֥˥åݥפʸƾΤȤȤƤķ褵줿ΤΡˡΧȤꤵ뵡ϤĤʤ˻롥
θĿŪʴФǤ⡤ޤ¿μǤ⡤Ǥϡ֥˥ۥפǤ֥˥åݥפǤ褦֥˥åݥפΤۤʤ뤤ġˤȤФ롥ºݡȰռε̣ˤϡ֥˥åݥפȤʤ뤳Ȥ¿֥˥åݥԡס֥˥åݥס˥åݥˡפǡǤʤʤԷˡϡ֥˥ۥˡסˡ֤Ϥפȡ֤äѤפˤ⸫褦ˡ¥ˤ϶ĴŪʶꡤ餷ФиŪʴޤߤ뤬֥˥åݥפξˤ¥ˤ붯Ĵषְ礵פްդƤȹͤ뤫⤷ʤ
˴ؤҤ (23--24) ɾ⤷

䤿ܿͤϡȯˤϤޤ긷ʤ٤פळȤʤɤƤܤޤƤФ褦Ƴ̵ʤȤޤǤϡɤɽ뤫˽ʴؿƤ롥ʤ椬ǡܡפƤФ⤦ǽʬǡ줬˥åݥȸƤФ褦˥ۥȸƤФ褦äȤⵤˤʤǡܡפȤפ⤫٤뤳ȤǤа¿ʤΤǤȤ̾ξˡ줬뤷


ܡפɤɤफȤϡ깭Ʊ۲˴ؤ#2919. ܸƱ ([2017-04-24-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡܸ줬֥饸פǤϤʤ֥ƥӷפǤ뤬椨ʤΤȻפ

ҤذҤ̡ܸ١Ĭҡ2011ǯ

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2017-08-05 Sat

#3022. sneeze θ츻 (2) [spelling][onomatopoeia][edd][etymology]

#1152. sneeze θ츻 ([2012-06-22-1]) ˴ϢơɲŪ󶡤Horobin (60) ϡˤĤƼΤ褦ɾƤ롥

. . . Old English had a number of words that began with the consonant cluster <fn>, pronounced with initial /fn/. This combination is no longer found at the beginning of any Modern English word. What has happened to these words? In the case of the verb fneosan, the initial /f/ ceased to be pronounced in the Middle English period, giving an alternative spelling nese, alongside fnese. Because it was no longer pronounced, the <f> began to be confused with the long-s of medieval handwriting and this gave rise to the modern form sneeze, which ultimately replaced fnese entirely. The OED suggests that sneeze may have replaced fnese because of its 'phonetic appropriateness', that is to say, because it was felt to resemble the sound of sneezing more closely. This is a tempting theory, but one that is hard to substantiate.


ޤǤˤϡƬ໤ҲΤߤʤ neese neeze η֤ĤäƤ뤳ȤդEDD Online NEEZE, v. sb. ˤСʲ̤ neese, neease, neesh-, neze ʤɤΰֻǧ롥



long <s> ˤĤƤϡ#584. long <s> graphemics ([2010-12-02-1])#1732. Shakespeare ֤ (2) ([2014-01-23-1])#2997. 1800ǯ򶭤˰ä long <s> ([2017-07-11-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-10-07-1]

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2017-08-04 Fri

#3021. οҤȤƤӸ (2) [history_of_linguistics][comparative_linguistics]

ε ([2017-08-03-1]) ǡӸؤ̪طˤĤƿ줿ΤȤϡŪ٥ȥ顼Ȥʤä Yuval Noah Harari ˤ Sapiens ˮإԥˡ١ˤǤ⿨Ƥ롥ӸؤȤʤä William Jones θӤϡΤޤΥͥ륮ȤʤäȤǤ롥Harari (335--36) ε˼򷹤褦

   Linguistics received enthusiastic imperial support. The European empires believed that in order to govern effectively they must know the languages and cultures of their subjects. British officers arriving in India were supposed to spend up to three years in a Calcutta college, where they studied Hindu and Muslim law alongside English law; Sanskrit, Urdu and Persian alongside Greek and Latin; and Tamil, Bengali and Hindustani culture alongside mathematics, economics and geography. The study of linguistics provided invaluable help in understanding the structure and grammar of local languages.
   Thanks to the work of people like William Jones and Henry Rawlinson, the European conquerors knew their empires very well. Far better, indeed, than any previous conquerors, or even than the native population itself. Their superior knowledge had obvious practical advantages. Without such knowledge, it is unlikely that a ridiculously small number of Britons could have succeeded in governing, oppressing and exploiting so many hundreds of millions of Indians for two centuries. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, fewer than 5,000 British officials, about 40,000--70,000 British soldiers, and perhaps another 100,000 British business people, hangers-on, wives and children were sufficient to conquer and rule up to 300 million Indians.


ˤȡ¦̤ߤ William Jones ŪʳؼԤǤꡤӸؤŪʳʬǤȤȤˤʤ롥
ʸϤ "The Marriage of Science and Empire" ꤵ15ϤΤǤ롥¤ΤȤԤϡӡ˸ؤ夲οҤȤߤʤƤ櫓ǤϤʤʪءء˳ؤʤΡֲʳءסʤ䤬ΤȤ٤ΤƤ롥ؤ⤽1ĤäȤݤǤ롥ؤߤפʻ

Harari, Yuval Noah. Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. 2011. London: Harvill Secker, 2014.

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2017-08-03 Thu

#3020. οҤȤƤӸ (1) [history_of_linguistics][comparative_linguistics][lexicography][oed][edd]

19Ⱦ20ȾˤơȯŸӸؤʸؤ̤ߤĤ OED EDD ԻȤʤǤػˤȤƤߤȼ¤˲ڡȤ뤬ȹȼΥǥ٤ƤȤ¦̤˺ƤϤʤʤRomain (48) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

   The energetic activities of intellectuals such as James Murray, Joseph Wright, author of the English Dialect Dictionary, and others were central to the shaping of European nationalism in the nineteenth century, a time when, as Pedersen (1931--43) puts it, 'national wakening and the beginnings of linguistic science go hand in hand'. Historians such as Seton-Watson (1977) and Anderson (1991) have observed how nineteenth-century Europe was a golden age of vernacularising lexicographers, grammarians, philologists and dialectologists. Their projects too were conceived as children of empires.
   Willinsky (1994) singles out the OED, in particular, as the 'last great gasp of British imperialism'. It captured a history of words that fit well with the ideological needs of the emerging nation-state. As Willinsky observes (1994: 194), the OED speaks to a 'particular history of national self-definition during a remarkable period in the expansion and collapse of the British empire'. Murray's tenure as editor of the OED coincided roughly with the period which historian Eric Hobsbawm (1987) has called the Age of Empire, 1875--1914. With the OED, Murray and other editors were engaged in establishing England and Oxford University Press's claim on the English language and the word trade more generally.


#644. OED ȥ衼åѤΥ饤Х뼭 ([2011-01-31-1]) Ƭǡ19ȾС衼åѳƹǤϡӸȯŸȤ˾äơŪ§˴Ť緿Ի褵ƤפȽҤ٤ӸȯŸȡפΤΤ衼åѤĬή˻٤ƤȤäƤ褤Ӹؤ̪δطˤäΤǤ롥
ʡ츦 OED ѤȤνǤԻ줿طʤ˻פڤȤȤϤޤʤ⤷ʤλ¤ΤäƤ٤
OED ˤĤƤΤäϡ#2451. åסOED Online ˿Ƥߤ ([2016-01-12-1]) ĥä󥯤ɤEDD ˤĤƤϡ#869. Wright's English Dialect Dictionary ([2011-09-13-1])#868. EDD Online ([2011-09-12-1])#2694. EDD Online (2) ([2016-09-11-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Romaine, Suzanne. "Introduction." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 1--56.

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2017-08-02 Wed

#3019. 18--19Ρ֤ʤߡפȤƤμ [lmode][prescriptivism][history][sociolinguistics]

ʸػ˾塤18--19 "the Age of Prose", "the great age of the personal letter", "the golden age of letter writing" ʤɤȸƤФ뤳Ȥ롥͡ȼ򤷤ᡤ路Ǥ롥ǯѸŪˤơλμˤոεŪʸˡѤȿǤƤͻҤʤɤؤδؿޤäƤƤ롥Ȥ櫓ҲؤδΥץ
18--19˼񤯤ȤҲŪʥ֡ȤʤäطʤˤĤơTieken-Boon van Ostade β (2--3)

Letter writing became an important means of communication to all people alike, largely as a result of the developments of the postal system. With the establishment of the Penny Post throughout Britain in 1840, postage became cheaper and was now paid for by the writer instead of the receiver. The result was phenomenal: while according to Mugglestone (2006: 276) 'some 75 million letters were sent in 1839', they had increased to 347 million ten years later. Just before the widespread introduction of the Penny Post, the average person in England and Wales received about four letters a year (Bailey 1996: 17), which rose to about eight times as many in 1871, and doubled further at the end of the century. The effects on the language were significant: more people write than ever before, either themselves or, as with minimally schooled writers, through the hands of others who had had slightly more education. Letter-writing manuals, such as The Complete Letter Writer (Anon., 2nd edn 1756), had been appearing in increasing numbers since the mid-eighteenth century, and they gained in popularity during the nineteenth, both in England and in the United States.


Υ֡ϡѸ˿ʽ񤭸դΥ뤬ܳŪ˳󤵤쿭ĥȤ̣ФǤϤʤޤǽ񤤤Ƥ͡ޤޤ񤯤褦ˤʤäȡƤ˽פʤȤˡޤǽ񤯤ȤΤʤä͡ޤǤ񤯤Ȥ԰٤ôȤʤϤ᤿Ȥ̣롥ˡν˴ؤޥ˥奢뤬Ǥ褦ˤʤꡤ줬ҲŪʤʤߤȤƵϲƤäǤ⤢뤳Ȥ̣롥
λϡɥ쥹ɤˤոˤ衤ˤĤƤ֤ʤߡפλä񤯤Ȥ԰٤⡤Τ褦ʻĬΤʤǼҲȤ߹ޤƤä⤦1ĤΤʤߤäȤȤˤʤ
1619ޤǤμλˤĤƤϡTieken-Boon van Ostade ˤ Correspondences Υڡ򻲾ȡ

Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. An Introduction to Late Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009.

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2017-08-01 Tue

#3018. industry 2Ĥθֻȡפȡֶ١ (2) [semantic_change][polysemy]

ε˰³industry ¿Ọ̇̄ѲˤĤơindustry ȤˤĤơִѤפֶ١פθȯŸˡֻȡפؤŸаޤϡϫƯѤŪʡָĿͤǽϡפŪʡֽŪʸΨפؤȥեȤƤäήΤʤǤȤ館롥
ΤˤƤܤˤƤ⡤λˤϡμ礫ΩȤ򤦤ޤбĤִѤʡ̱ϼʬλ֤ãͤǤꡤΰ̣ǡֶ١פǤäȡʬȤȶȤݤȤ빩ƯϫƯԤˤȤäơֶ١פȤϡष¾γ˹碌ƻ˷ޤäŻ򤳤ʤǽϤؤ褦ˤʤäĤޤꡤޤֶ٤ʡϫƯԤȤϡĿŪ˺ͳФΤʹ֤ǤϤʤष׸Ū˿񤤡ĤΤʤǤޤƯǤʹ֤ؤ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥ϡ18 industry θȯθʡỺȡˤܳŪ褷Ȥˤꡤ餢ʡ١ˤμҲŪѤäȤ̣롥ֶ١פθΤΤϡѸ˼Ѥ줿15䤻ˡäȷ³Ƥ뤬λؤϰϤơäȤмҲŪˡֶ١פȤϲ̣ΤȤʹѼΤƤƤΤǤ롥ߡֶ١פȤäƴ륤᡼ϡ褽ˤǤäΤǤꡤλΡֶ١פȤʪäȹͤƤ褤
industry Ρֶ١פŪʲʹѤѲϡindustry ΰ̣ѲΤΤȤϡФҲ٤ѲȤ٤ΤǤ롥̣ѲΰȴˤȤ館ΤʤС#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1]) ǤȤΡA ŪװפΡi ѡפΤǡ(c) ؼоݤФ٤Ѳפ°ΤȤҲŪʴؿߤСindustry Ρֶ١פθ⡤ˤƤΰ̣Ѳ򵯤ƤȤΤǤ롥Τ褦ʰ̣Ѳϸ츻ŵưפɤ߼ʤतΤΤҲŪˤϤ֤פʲͤỊ̇ѲǤ롥

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ǽ: 2026-06-26 03:46

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