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2013-07-31 Wed

#1556. U or non-U [sociolinguistics][bre][variation]

Ҳ񳬵ˤäƸѤ˺뤳ȤϡҲؤդȤǤ롥ܥ֥Ǥޤ˿Ƽ夲ƤĤεؤΥ󥯤#1504. ܸγغ ([2013-06-09-1]) ƬĥäΤǡȤ줿
奤ꥹѸˤҲ񳬵κ˴ؤǡȤ櫓ŪˤʤäΤϡꥹθؼ Ross ˤ U(pper) vs non-U(pper) Ȥ̤Ǥ롥Ǥ褯ΤƤΤϡѥʥץؼ table-napkin serviette ήԤѤήϸԤѤȸ롥ä򤬡ޤˤʤ䡤˴ؤäƤȤΤ顤͡δؿоݤȤʤΤ̵̤Ȥä
Ross (3) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ١򴬤

Today, in 1956, the English class-system is essentially tripartite---there exist an upper, a middle, and a lower class. It is solely by its language that the upper class is clearly marked off from the others. In times past (e.g. in the Victorian and Edwardian periods) this was not the case. But, today, a member of the upper class is, for instance, not necessarily better educated, cleaner, or richer than someone not of this class. Nor, in general, is he likely to play a greater part in public affairs, be supported by other trades or professions, or engage in other pursuits or pastimes than his fellow of another class.


ĤޤꡤߤΥꥹǤϡ麹ϡ¾塤ѤˤäƤΤɸȤҲؤǤϼҲŪʶʬȸŪʺۤбĴξԤȤߴطͻ褦忴ƤΤRoss ϸԤԤꤷƤΤʿǤ櫓Ǥ롥ñǤϤʤϤ͡ζ̣ĤˤϽʬä
Ross Ͻ񤭸դäդˤ U vs non-U ̤ԤǤȯȸáɽˤ U vs non-U 򤵤˶̤Ƥ뤬ʲǤϸáɽˤˤ U non-U Ω򼨤󤷤褦 (20--24) ʤ줫Ѽбɽʤ¿롥

Unon-U
jerry, potarticle
have one's bathtake a bath
civil 
buscoach
stayscorsets
counterpanecoverlet
salt-cellars, pepper-potscruet
 crust, crumb
civilizedcultivated, cultured
Have some more tea?How is your cup?
bike, bicyclecycle
dinnerevening meal
dinner jacket, short coat, etc.dress-suit
 excuse my glove
greatcoat, topcoat 
vegetablesgreens
They've a very nice houseThey've a lovely home
ridinghorse-riding
I was very sick on the boatI was very ill on the boat
knavejack
 la-di-da
hall, dining-roomlounge
madmental
 a matter of business
 If you don't mind my mentioning it
looking-glassmirror
writing-papernote-paper
What?, Sorry!Pardon!
 pass a (nasty) remark
 Pleased to meet you.
 posh
jampreserve
wirelessradio
 rude
table-napkinserviette
work for an examstudy for an exam
master, mistressteacher
lavatory-papertoilet-paper
richwealthy


21θߤȤʤäƤϡɽѼɽ魯ΤȤǧޤäƤƤ麹Ȥϡʸκƺ庹ȤäڤؤäƤƤ褦ˤפ롥
Crystal (364) ˤȡRoss ʸޤ᤿ Nancy Mitford Noblesse Oblige ϡǸ13ꤷȤ顤äۤɤȿäȤˤʤ롥¤˥ꥹ餷Ǥ롥

Ross, Alan. "U and non-U." Noblesse Oblige. Ed. Nancy Mitford. Oxford: OUP, 1956. 3--28.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.

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2013-07-30 Tue

#1555. unbeknownst [phonetics][corpus][-st]

ε#1554. against -st ([2013-07-29-1]) ˰³츻Ū -st ꡥɸηĥäɽ롥ȤʸƬʤɤ֤졤ʸȤơ?Τʤǡפΰ̣Ѥ롥BrE Ǥ unbeknown to ¿Ѥ뤬AmE ǤϸŤᤫ unbeknownst to ŪǤ롥unbeknow(e)ns Τ褦 -t ɸŪʷ֤⸫롥ʸ󤲤褦

Unbeknownst to his parents, he and his girlfriend had gotten married.
Unbeknownst to her father, she began taking dancing lessons.
Unbeknownst to the students, the teacher had entered the room.
A person may overhear others unbeknownst to them.


Ѹˤäư beknown (recognise, acknowledge) ʬ unbeknown ȤˤʤäƤMED biknouen (v) 򻲾ȡˡOED ˤȡƬ un- ΤĤ unbeknown 1636ǯ˽ФƤ뤬˸ -st ղä unbeknownst νФ1854ǯǤ롥ԤϤȤȸŪŪʶä褦20ˤƹȤ褦ˤʤäºݤˡCOCA (Corpus of Contemporary American English) Google Books Ngram Viewer Ĵ٤ƤߤȡѼȤ20ȾοΨ
ơunbeknownst -st θź (paragoge) פǤ롥OED ǤȤƤꡤƼθ츻ŵǤ against, amongst ʤɤ -st ȼʤ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ٤Ǥ롥θ unbeknownst to Ȥϡ ֻŪ˵ǽƤȤȤȡ-st ľβɡǤ뤳Ȥ餤-st(t)- ȤҲϢ³δϡnext to, thanks to ʤɤɽȤϢƤ뤫⤷ʤޤۤ츻Ū -st (against, amidst, amongst, betwixt, whilst) ¤٤Ƥߤȡ褽ִ֡桤פȤ̤ΰ̣Ф褦˻פ뤬unbeknownst Τʤ֤ˡפȲ᤹뤳ȤϤǤ롥
츻Ū -st ˴ؤ뵭ؤΥ󥯤ε[2013-07-29-1]ˤޤȤƤΤǡ׻ȡ

ʸ嵭2014/02/24(Mon)Merriam-Webster μ򻲾ȡ

Referrer (Inside): [2013-08-17-1]

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2013-07-29 Mon

#1554. against -st [preposition][adverb][genitive][phonetics][link][-st]

츻Ūˤ against again ֤ä -st ϲʤΤ
űѸǡagain ongēan ʤɤη֤졤ֻͿʤ뤤гʤۤˡƬȤƹǽƤʿԤơ򼨤°ʸȼä ongēanes ʤɤη֤ԤʤƤ[2009-07-18-1]ε#81. once twice -ce Ȥϲפ򻲾ȡˡѸˤʤȡֻȤƤ again ϡ۷ agains Ӹ³ against ȤȤ˶礷ϤᡤѸɸΩβȤƤεǽ˸ꤵƤ椯ȤȤʤäѸֻȤƤɸŪϰ̤ΩΤϡǤȯ against ä
ơagain ľ -(e)s źäϡҤ̤ꡤ첽°ʸȤƤ뤬ʤ t źäϤɤΤ褦OED against, prep., conj., adv., and n. θ츻ˤȼΤ褦ˤ롥

The development of excrescent final -t . . . was probably reinforced by the fact that the word was frequently followed by te, variant of THE adj., and perhaps also by association with superlatives in -st; compare similarly AMONGST prep. 1a, AMIDST adv., BETWIXT prep.


رѸ츻ŵ٤εҤ⡤OED ˱äƤ뤬­롥

-t Ϥ餯Ǿ -st ȺƱ줿ź (cf. AMIDST, AMONGST, BETWIXT), ޤ agains þe agains te against(e) þe (cf. hwīls þat whilst þat) ȤʤʬϤˤΤ -st ˽κǽ Layamon Brut Otho (c1300) aȝenest ȤƸCaligula (?a1200) Ǥ toȝinesˡ Trevisa 1400ǯʹ London αѸǤϹѤ졤16CȾˤʸȤƳΩagain, against Ȥ ModE -g- ֤ȯ ON αƶˤ롥


Brut νϡMED ayēn(e)s (prep.) 1(b) ꡤ"c1300 Lay. Brut (Otho C.13) 22476: He dude ase a wisman and wende a3enest [Clg: to3eines] him anon." Ǥ롥
嵭ꡤagainst -st źäˤĤƤϡ(1) Ǿ -st Ȥ䡤(2) ľ괧θƬҲ˴ؤʬϡȤƤƤȤȤǤ롥ƱźäȤ amidst, amongst, betwixt, whilst ʤɤ뤬νлߤεǽŪ-st ̵ͭˤ̣㡤3ҲϢ³βŪյʤɤͻơŪ٤ϢơűѸ ongēan tōgēan(es) ˴Ťơ-t źä줿֤15 toȝenes ȤƽФƤ뤳ȤդäƤ
ۤ against ˤź (paragoge) ˤĤƤϡ#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) 򻲾ȡޤwhilst ˤĤƤϡ#508. Dracula ˸ whilst ([2010-09-17-1])#509. Dracula ˸ whilst (2) ([2010-09-18-1])#510. ꥫѸˤ whilst ξü ([2010-09-19-1]) betwixt ˤĤƤϡ#1389. between θ츻 ([2013-02-14-1])#1393. between Ū۷֤˭٤([2013-02-18-1])#1394. between ΰ۷֤ʬ̻ۤŪѲ ([2013-02-19-1])#1399. Ѹˤ between ΰ۷֤ʬۡ ([2013-02-24-1]) 򻲾ȡ

߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ

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2013-07-28 Sun

#1553. Consonant Extrametricality ̾ư [diatone][consonant][stress][phonology][metrical_phonology]

Χ (metrical phonology) ˤȡѸˤ Consonant Extrametricality (CE) ȤΧ§롥üŪˤСλҲϡαΧθ뤦ǴʤȤ뵬§Ǥ롥"[+cons] [+ex] / ] word" ȸ롥
Ҳ줺ˡǽ rhyme ʲ2⡼ʾȤʤʤĤޤʬ˾ˤϡ§ȤƤ˶֤롥Hogg and McCully (109--10)

(a)(b)(c)
obey /obée/torment /tɔrmént/astonish /astɔ'nɪʃ/
polite /poláit/perhaps /perháps/decrepit /dikrépit/
humane /hjuuméyn/august /ɔɔgúst/normal /nɔ'rmal/
petite /petíit/divert /daivért/consider /kɔnsíder/


̾ʳʻˤͭʵ§Ǥ롥Ѹ¿̾Ǥϰ̤˶1˰Ĥ뤿ᡤǽ˻Ĥˤϡ긷郎ݤ롥㤨С(b) ǡư torment ȷƻ august ϤȤ˸Ҳ1ĤΧȤƤ⡤ޤ rhyme ʲʬΤǡ2˶롥Ȥ̾ torment ̾ August Ǥ1˶ܤΤǡλ¤򤦤ޤǤȵ§ͤɬפ롥
Ǥ狼䤹ΤϡǽҲΤ٤ƤΧȤǤ롥Katamba (236--37) ϡcanoe, bamboo, bazaar, settee; police, alert, debate, cartoon ʤɤ󤲤ʤ顤Τ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥

. . . with regard to the disyllabic noun stress rule, only the nucleus of the second syllable is projected. The noun stress rule only 'sees' the syllable nucleus: if the nucleus branches (i.e. contains a long vowel or diphthong), stress is on the final syllable. Otherwise, stress is on the initial syllable.


ϡ̾ξˤϺǽκǽҲ1ĤǤʤǽҲΤ٤ƤΧȤߤʤȤ§ơλҲǤޤ rhyme ʲʬʤĤޤĹ첻2첻ޤ˾ˤΤߡκǽ˶Ȥ롥ξ˹ʤСԲؤȰưƤ椯ˤꡤ̾ torment ̾ August ϡ줾 /tɔ'rment/, /ɔ'ɔgust/ ʬϤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
αΧʬϤ˽С̾ư (diatone) ¿θζѥϡConsonant Extrametricality ʻ̾줫̾줫ˤ2򻲾ȤƵҤǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ ([2011-07-10-1]) ̾ưˤ϶֤ѰۤѲ򼨤Ϥ뤷 (ex. control (n.), retard (n.); [2012-04-23-1]) ͽۤƤϤޤʤ⾯ʤʤ (ex. discount, exploit, increase) ʬϤǽϤ⤿ʤȤ򼨤ΤϴñŪΤߤʤ餺̻Ūʷ򼨺Τ򤹤ΤǤС̾ưθóȻ򵭽ҤǡͭʬϤȤʤ뤫⤷ʤ

Hogg, Richard and C. B. McCully. Metrical Phonology: A Coursebook. Cambridge: CUP, 1987.
Katamba, Francis. An Introduction to Phonology. New York: Longman, 1989.

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2013-07-27 Sat

#1552. T/V distinction face [face][politeness][pragmatics][personal_pronoun][honorific][t/v_distinction]

#1126. 衼åѤμ׸ˤ T/V distinction ε ([2012-05-27-1]) ǡT/V distinction ε˴ؤ Brown and Gilman θŵŪʳҲ𤷤Brown and Gilman 衤衼åѤμ׸ʳǤ2;ñФƾΤ T/V distinction ѻ뤳ȤΤ褦ˤʤꡤˤƤ politeness face ȤǰäƤȤǡ餳뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥
ε[2012-05-27-1]Ǥ˼ɾ (V) ΤŪʣǫȷӤĤΤϡʣ˸Ϥǧ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫Ȥ롥ǡƱʣϡºݤˤ1ͤǤؤλؼٹ礤ܤ᤿ꤹȤȤˤʤ롥̷⤹2ĤϤƯƤΤȤСߤǤääƷɾΤѤ̤Ƥޤ褦˻פ뤬ϤɤΤ
츫̷⤹2ĤϤϡݥ饤ȥͥ face Ȥ̵ʤͻ礵뤳ȤǤ롥ʣΤġ˸ҤդȤǽ positive face ȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤؼоݤܤַɤƱ󤶤פȤˤɰդȱθȼȤʣεǽ negative face ȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥ξԤۤʤäƤ뤬ȤδΩƤ褦ȤƤǰפƤ롥Hudson (124) ϼΤ褦󤷤Ƥ롥

Their [Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson's] explanation is based on the theory of face . . . . By using a plural pronoun for 'you', the speaker protects the other person's power-face in two ways. First, the plural pronoun picks out the other person less directly than the singular form does, because of its ambiguity. The intended reference could, in principle, be some group of people rather than the individual actually targeted. This kind of indirectness is a common strategy for giving the other person an 'out', an alternative interpretation which protects them against any threats to their face which may be in the message. The second effect of using a plural pronoun is to pretend that the person addressed is the representative of a larger group ('you and your group'), which obviously puts them in a position of greater power.


ʣѤ̣ΤܤͿȷɰդ̤Ȥƶϡ츽ݤ˱ѤǤ褦˻פ롥ܸ¿ܤɽǤ?ʤɡפ?ߤʡפϡ?פǤϤʤȤ餫ʤ⡤?פɽȤƤ̤ϰ̤ͿƤȤ⤤ΤǤ롥

Brown, R. W. and A. Gilman. "The Pronouns of Power and Solidarity." Style in Language. Ed. Thomas A. Sebeok. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT P, 1960. 253--76.
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.

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2013-07-26 Fri

#1551. óȻSؤȽ [lexical_diffusion]

ε#1550. ȾóȻްռ (3) ([2013-07-25-1]) Ϥᡤlexical_diffusion ˴ؤ뤤ĤεǡóȻοʹԥѥSȤˤĤƸڤƤóȻSϻζǯ礭ʸơޤȤʤäƤΤ͡ʸѲοʹԥѥŪĴƤߤȡŪS뤳ȤϾʤȸ¤Ͽ㤦Ȥ¿ΤǤ롥
̤θѲλ㸦椬ѤˤĤ졤óȻSФȽʹ褦ˤʤäƤWardhaugh ¹Ȥʤ뤬ͤȽʹޤϡDenison, D. ("Log(ist)ic and Simplistic S-curves." Motives for Language Change. Ed. R. Hickey. Cambridge: CUP.) ꡥ

. . . after reviewing S-curve type diffusion as an attempt to account for different changes that have occurred in English, Denison (2003) cautions that: 'The S-curve is neither as simple nor as uniform a phenomenon as it is sometimes assumed. Given too the simplistic picture of variation it sometimes reflects (and requires), the S-curve should not be seized on too readily as the general shape of language change' (p. 68). (222)


Nevalainen, T. and H. Raumolin-Brunberg (Historical Sociolinguistics. Harlow: Longman, 2003.) ϡc.1410--1681 νʥƥȤ The Corpus of Early Correspondence ˤηѲθηȤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

They conclude: 'Although the S-shaped curves serve as an ideal pattern of the diffusion of language change, several of the fourteen morphosyntactic changes . . . do not replicate the model in an unequivocal way' (p. 79). They also found that the actual rate of change varied a great deal from item to item. (223)


Labov, W. (Principles of Linguistic Change, I: Internal Factors. Oxford: Blackwell, 1994.) ޤóȻ˵ǰƤ롥

Labov's view of lexical diffusion is that it has only a very limited role to play in change. He says (1994, p. 501), 'There is no evidence . . . that lexical diffusion is the fundamental mechanism of sound change.' It happens but is only a complement --- and a small one at that --- to regular sound change. (225)


óȻSˤȤäơϻѤƤ롥

Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.

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2013-07-25 Thu

#1550. ȾóȻްռ (3) [wave_theory][lexical_diffusion][implicational_scale]

[2013-07-07-1], [2013-07-08-1]ε˰³wave_theory lexical_diffusion δطˤĤơѲ濴ϤȾ˼ϰŤƤ椯Ȥǥ벽ȾȡѲäδ֤˥褦ˤʳŪ˿ʤǤ椯ȤƤóȻȤοϹ⤤ظˤSȤإǥꤵƤꡤ̾ͤʷϵɺäƤ롥
ξԤȤ˲餫ΰ̣ (diffusion) 򰷤äƤΤŪʰ㤤ϡȾŪ֤ȤƤΤФơóȻϸŪ֤ˤƤ뤳ȤǤ롥Wardhaugh (222--23) ŦƤΤǡսѤ褦

The theory of lexical diffusion has resemblances to the wave theory of language change: a wave is also a diffusion process. . . .
   The wave theory of change and the theory of lexical diffusion are very much alike. Each attempts to explain how a linguistic change spreads through a language; the wave theory makes claims about how people are affected by change, whereas lexical diffusion makes claims concerning how a particular change spreads through the set of words in which the feature undergoing change actually occurs: diffusion through linguistic space. That the two theories deal with much the same phenomenon is apparent when we look at how individuals deal with such sets of words. What we find is that in individual usage the change is introduced progressively through the set, and once it is made in a particular word it is not 'unmade', i.e., there is no reversion to previous use. What is remarkable is that, with a particular change in a particular set of words, speakers tend to follow the same order of progression through the set; that is, all speakers seem to start with the same sub-set of words, have the same intermediate sub-set, and extend the change to the same final sub-set. For example, in Belfast the change from [ʊ] to [ʌ] in the vowel in words like pull, put, and should shows a 74 percent incidence in the first word, a 39 percent incidence in the second, and only an 8 percent incidence in the third . . . . In East Anglia and the East Midlands of England, a sound change is well established in must and come but the same change is found hardly at all in uncle and hundred . . . . This diffusion is through social space.


ǤϸóȻ "linguistic space" бȾ "social space" бƤ롥Ԥ "geographical space" 礹빭ǰȤƤȤ館Ѳ˿ʹԽԲĵ뤳Ȥˤ⿨Ƥ뤬϶Ūˤϴްռ (implicational scale) 뤳Ȥб롥
social space geographical space ˤŤȤϡŪˤ϶ƱΤ鶦ƱΤؤŤΤȤǤꡤ˥ߥˤüԤüԤؤŤΤȤǤ롥 S-diffusion ȸƤӡФƸ줫ؤŤ W-diffusion ȸƤǡξԤΰƱΤϡOgura and Wang Ǥ롥 (Hotta 120) ƳȤΤǡʲ˰Ѥ롥

Ogura and Wang call these two different levels of diffusion W-diffusion and S-diffusion. W-diffusion proceeds from word to word of a single speaker or at a single site, while S-diffusion proceeds from speaker to speaker, or from site to site of a single word. Students of language change have sometimes spoken of this "double diffusion," which may be compared to diffusion of infectious diseases:

These diffusion processes are comparable to epidemics of infectious diseases, and the standard model of an epidemic produces an S-curve (called logistic) describing the increase of frequency of the trait. There are potentially two epidemics, or more exactly two dimensions in which the epidemic can proceed. One dimension is represented by W-diffusion and the other dimension by S-diffusion. (Ogura and Wang, "Evolution Theory" 322)


Ѳ2Ťΰ̣ŤƤ椯Ȥ "double diffusion" ιͤˡ礭ʲǽ򸫤ȤǤǤ롥Hudson (183) ǤС"cumulative diffusion" ȤɽȤ⤷ʤ

How does the theory of lexical diffusion relate to the wave theory . . . . According to the latter, changes spread gradually through the population, just as, according to the former, they diffuse through the lexicon, so we might expect a connection between them. A reasonable hypothesis is that changes spread cumulatively through the lexicon at the same time as they spread through the population, so that the words which were affected first by the change will be the first to be adopted in the new pronunciation by other speakers.


Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Ogura, Mieko and William S-Y. Wang. "Evolution Theory and Lexical Diffusion." Advances in English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Jacek Fisiak and Marcin Krygier. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1998. 315--43.
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.

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2013-07-24 Wed

#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? [language_change][causation][invisible_hand][teleology][drift][functionalism]

֤ʤѲΤפȡ֤ʤüԤϸѲΤפȤϡ˰ۤʤ䤤Ǥ롥ȯΩ󤬰ۤʤäƤ롥
Why does language change? Ȥ䤤Ǥϡ줬ʼΡˤȤʤäƤʪΤ褦˼餬ȯŸƤ椯Ȥäͭ (organicism) ȯã (ontogenesis) 󤬼Ƥ롥ѲɬԲ (necessity) Ǥ뤳ȤȤƤ롥Why do speakers change their language? Ȥ䤤ǤϡüԤʼΡˤǤꡤüԤͳջ (free will) ˤäƸѲΤȤ (mechanism) 䵻 (artisanship) 󤬼롥
ɤ餬ȯ䤫ȤСKeller (8--9) ˸餻СɤѲ䤦ƤʤȤΤϡѲϽŪʸ (collective phenomena) Ǥ롥νŪʸݤ椷ƤΤŪ (teleology) ǤϤʤָ (invisible_hand) θǤ롤 Keller ϼĥ롥
ˤĤƤϡ#10. Ͽ͹ ([2009-05-09-1]) ˤθ Bernard de Mandeville (1670--1733) ˤ The Fable of the Bees: Private Vices, Public Benefits (1714) ˵뤳ȤǤ롥ȤơKeller 3Ѥ褦

the insight that there are social phenomena which result from individuals' actions without being intended by them (35)
An invisible-hand explanation is a conjectural story of a phenomenon which is the result of human actions, but not the execution of any human design (38)
a language is the unintentional collective result of intentional actions by individuals (53)


ѲƤϤȡġüԤθưˤϰտŪη̤ȤƵѲϺǽ餫տޤƤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ϤϰտŪϤտŪȤʤȡδ֤ˤɤΤ褦ʥ֥åܥåϤޤäƤΤȤʤ뤬Υ֥åܥåΤȤ򸫤ȸƤǤΤǤ롥ġüԤΰտŪʸư̵˽ޤäơȤ֥åܥåäƤ椯ȡġüԤˤϻפʤä̤ФƤ롥η̤ѲȤȤˤʤ롥顤Keller (89) ϸѲĹŪʵǽŦƤ롥

As an invisible-hand explanation of a linguistic phenomenon always starts with the motives of the speakers and 'projects' the phenomenon itself as the macro-structural effect of the choices made, it is necessarily functionalistic, although in a 'refracted' way.


Ѳ˻ΥǤüԤΤȤʤäƤ뤬ǸΥȥͥ򤯤ȴȡĤΤޤˤΤڤؤäƤ롥Τ褦ʸѲѤļԤߤСWhy does language change? Why do speakers change their language? ŬڤʼǤʤȤ餫ɤäƤȤ⤤뤷ɤäƤȤ⤤롥󤬷Ƥ롤ȤȤˤʤ

Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.

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2013-07-23 Tue

#1548. 륿² [altaic][family_tree][japanese][language_family][map][mongolian]

#496. ² ([2010-09-05-1]) ȹ碌ƥ롦륿²β륢륿² (Altaic) ˤĤơСʡɡ꡼¾ (46--47) Ҳ𤹤롥륿²ϡ¾ڤƤϤʤΤīܸ줬°ȤƤƤפʸ²Ǥ롥꡼ͿƤ륢륿ޤ򸫤Ƥߤ褦

Altaic Family Tree

θ²θϤϥ륿̮նʲ޻ȡˤˤȤ졤Υ륯 (Turkic)Υ󥴥 (Mongolian)Υĥ󥰡 (Tungus) ʬ롥θ塤ôǤͷ̱ˤäƳȻߤǤϥȥ륳饷٥ꥢˤӤ˹ʬۤ롥

Map of the Altaic Mountains

륿Τηطϡäʸˡ˴ŤΤ¿Դ֤ɬոΰפ򸫤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤ̤ħȤƻŦΤϡ礬 SOV Ǥ뤳ȡǤ뤳ȡ첻Ĵ¤äƤ뤳Ȥ󤲤뤬2ˤĤƤϥ²ħȤפ롥ܸν°ƤƤΤ⡤ħ椨Ǥ롥ήɤθˤСܸϥ륿²ȥȥͥ²κȤ뤬񤷤
ϡǸιθǤꡤī (1644--1911) ΤȤͥ줿ߤǤ¿üԤظؤᡤǤδΤƤ롥
륿²γƸξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡEthnologue report for Altaic 򻲾ȡ

Сʡɡ꡼ƥ󡦥ޥ塼ޥꥢݥ󥹥 ԡ ˼ ؿʸ޴ա١νӡ2005ǯ

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2013-07-22 Mon

#1547. μҲŪ°7 [sociolinguistics][standardisation][purism][prescriptive_grammar][language_equality]

٤ƤθϸŪˤϤۤʿȤäƤ褤ҲŪˤͥΤ¤Ǥ롥ǤϡҲŪͥϲˤäƷޤΤ㤨Сɸಽ줿ѼȡȸƤФɸŪѼȤ٤СԤΤۤͤ⤤ȤߤʤΤǡɸಽƤ٤פ餷Ȥ狼뤬Ʊ٤ɸಽƤѸȥ륺Ȥ٤˱ѸΤۤҲŪΩ줬Ϥ뤫˹⤤ΤϲˤΤüԤʤˤ⤫餺ƥ˲֤ͤƤΤϤʤȤ⡤ɸಽ٤ȤǤ¬뤳ȤǤʤ
μҲŪʲͤ˴ؤ7Ĥ°ƤƤ롥1976ǯ Bell ƤΤǡWardhaugh (31--39) ⤷ƤΤǡ󤷤褦7Ĥ°Ȥϡstandardization, vitality, historicity, autonomy, reduction, mixture, de facto norms Ǥ롥

(1) standardization: 줬ɸಽϲƤ١ɸϡ̾ʸˡ񡦼ʸؤȼäƤꡤҲŪʸŪŪξħȤƵǽ롥̾ˤѤǤ⤢롥ѸˤĤƤϡ#1396. "Standard English" Ȥϲ ([2013-02-21-1]) 򻲾ȡ
(2) vitality: ȯʸ춦ƱΤ¸ߤƤ뤫ݤѹˤ Manx Cornish Τ褦ʥȷϸϤǤ˻ȤʤäƤꡤüԶƱΤ¸ߤʤΤǡvitality ʤȤȤˤʤ롥ŵꥷƥüԤ¾夤ʤΤ vitality ϤʤȤ뤬θŵϸˤʸŪʱƶϤäƤ뤿ˡManx Cornish ξȤ϶̤٤
(3) historicity: θ춦ƱΤĹˤͭƤȴƤ١ӥνѼüԤϡĹˤͭơθ˸ҤǧϡȷӤĤ뤳ȤˤäƼҲŪʲͤӤӤ롥
(4) autonomy: ¾Ѽ狼ΩƤꡤλʤǸȤߤʤ١Ѽ郎ΩƤ뤫¸Ƥ뤫ɬҴŪʤΤǤϤʤŪʴǤ뤳Ȥ¿δˤĤƤϡ#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) ӡ#1523. Abstand language Ausbau language ([2013-06-28-1]) ε򻲾ȡ
(5) reduction: Ѥ䵡ǽ̾Ƥ١(4) Ω복ǰǤ heteronomy ˤᤤ㤨Сԥʤɤϲ̤쵡ǽμबɸ٤ƾʤ
(6) mixture: 줬礷ƤǤ١ŪʸѤĿ͡ˤȤäơ¾줫μѸä¿Ѽϡͤ㤤Ѽ˸롥ŵŪˤϡԥϲͤ㤯줬Ǥ롥
(7) de facto norms: üԤεϤ˽Ȥ١ˤäȸääȹͤ뵬ϼζ

ϡüԤФɾδȸƤ褤
ָפȸƤФҲŪͤι⤤ѼǤо7Ĥ°ˤĤƹäƤ롤Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤѼ老Ȥ˳°ͤϰۤʤΤ̤ʾͤ°οȼޤޤ°ͤȤ߹碌Ū˹⤤Ѽ郎ҲŪ˲ͤѼȤߤʤ䤹ָפȸƤФ䤹ȤȤȹͤ롥ʤ7°ϡ#1519. ҲŪ෿ؤƻ ([2013-06-24-1]) ˷ǤɽΤʤ󤷤μҲŪ°ȡʬŪӤǤ롥

Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-11-13-1]

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2013-07-21 Sun

#1546. ʬۤȽʬ [religion][sociolinguistics][christianity][geolinguistics][map][buddhism][hebrew]

ȽδطοˤĤƤϡ¿פʤźʹֽĤϤФиȽȤҤȤޤȤˤ餷Ƥ⤿餹ŪƶǤ뤳ȤϡѸˤܸˤ1ȤäƤ⡤#296. 轡ѸܸͿŪƶ ([2010-02-17-1]) ǽҤ٤ǡ餫Ǥ롥ѸˤĤƤϡäȤܤˤĤ䤹٥ˤơ#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1]) #1439. ͳ褹ɽ ([2013-04-05-1]) Ǽ̤ꡤꥹȶαƶǻǤ롥
ηϤʬۤؤȻܤƤ⡤δͿ礭֤ƤΤޤ޸֤ƤˤʤäƤϾʤʤε#1545. "lexical cleansing" ([2013-07-20-1]) κǸǿ줿褦ˡSerbo-Croatian ȤϢ³Τʤ줬 Serbian Croatian 2ʬΤϡԤΥꥷȸԤΥȥåȤνŪΩŪΩؤƤ줿̤ȤǤʤˡ¾ƱǤʤ顤ඵ̤ˤ Bosnian 3ܤΡָפȤǧΤĤĤˡȥѥǤϡߤǽ Hindustani ҥ󥺡ȥඵΩ˴ŤHindi Urdu Ȥۤʤ2ؤʬƤ롥ץǤϡꥷüԽĤȥȥ륳üԽĤ줾쥮ꥷ̤ȥඵ̤бƤ롥
ŪΥʬۤƤˤ⤫餺Ʊ뤬椨ˤȷӤĤ줬ݤ줿ꡤ餿˺Ѥ줿ꤹ륱⤢롥㤨СɤǺüˤޤ¸ߤ륤ඵ̤νĤ衤²ϤΥߡʤɤδĶˤƤˤ⤫餺ȯŪȿŪ˰Ǥ Urdu ؤȸؤ㤬ʥ֥ȥpp. 75--76ˡ2000ǯΤΥƤ̱饨ȤȤˡȤƤϻȤʤäƤإ֥饤ɤ餻礭ʸưϤϥ䶵εῴϤä
γȤȤˤôȤʤ礹ȤȤϡ衼åѤˤ륭ꥹȶȥƥ졤ˤ륢ӥ졤쥢ˤʩʤɡ¿㤬롥̾줬ŪʵῴϤˤ̿졤ݻ褦⤢롥ʬʹߤΥݡɤǥȥå񤬥ݡɸѤ³Ȥϡݡɸ¸ߴݤĤȤ˹׸եɥˤ륪Υե󥹸Фϰ̸⡤ԤγưˤäƲǽȤʤä
嵭Τ褦˴Ϣο򤹤ǡȽȤɬŪʴطǤϤʤȤ⶯ĴƤɬפ롥̱ܽ¿ҲˤäƤϡνݤäƤΤΡθϼܽͥʸؾ괹Ƥ륱ʤʤ㤨СƹΥ䶵̤䥤ඵ̤פ⤫٤Ф褤
ȽϴϢϿδϢɬŪǤϤʤξԤɤΤ褦˰¸ɤΤ褦ΩƤΤȤϡ#1543. ء ([2013-07-18-1]) μȤ٤1Ĥ * 

󡦥֥ȥ ͵ ظء١ҡʸ˥ӡ1988ǯ

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2013-07-20 Sat

#1545. "lexical cleansing" [sociolinguistics][lexicology][purism][language_planning][inkhorn_term]

ɸ "ethnic cleansing" ۵ԲѸǤ롥줫Ѹݤ褦ȤαưǤꡤȤӤӡȤƲ˿Ԥ뤳Ȥ롥ܸǤⲣʸβʻѤ򤤤֤Ϥ뤷ѸǤ⤫Ĥƥͥ󥹴˥ (inkhorn_term "oversea language" [2013-03-08-1]ε#1411. Ѹä "oversea language"פ򻲾ȡˤйز󵢤褦Ȥ줿[2013-03-07-1]ε#1410. Ƚ󵢡פ򻲾ȡˡܸǤѸǤ⡤ηŪ˼Ѹݤ֤褦ʼҲưؤȯŸȤϤʤä
Ȥȥ륳Ǥ lexical cleansing äơߤʹǤ롥 (96--100) ˡȥ륳ˤָ̿פҲ𤵤Ƥ롥1Υȥ륳ĹưλƳԤˤƥȥ륳¹νΤȤʤä Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881--1938) ϡ¹ (1923) ȼȥ륳ʸβפǹԤޤKemal ϡޥκפӽ٤ӥʸ޻ؤڤؤǹԤ³ơΥȥ륳ʸ줬ӥڥ륷θǤ¿ʬ˴ޤؼԸȤʤäƤȤ顤äηŪʥȥ륳첽
ӥڥ륷θǤ٤ȥ륳ǽ˹ԤʤäȤϡȥ륳츦زˡ̣ǤΥȥ륳θýȤȤạ̈ǤΥȥ륳Ȥϡ륯²°뿷ΤǰƬˤƤꡤۥθ졤ȥ륭󡤥륬٥ꥢä븽졤㥬졤ʥȥꥢХ륫ޤǤŸ򷡤굯Ǥʣ礷ŪΤˤϻ˸츻򶯰˲ᤷ⤷⤷Ȥˡ衼åѸ줫μѤϡӥڥ륷ǤӽȤΤȤ뤳Ȥäȥ륳ϡջ֤ȶȯưˤꡤlexical cleansing Ԥʤȥ륳ФȤΤǤ롥
ȥ륳ΤۤˡȤ Serbo-Croatian ˤþ󤲤롥1990ǯȾε桼Τȼޤ Serbo-Croatian ȸƤФƤ줬̱²ʸȤʬˤ Serbian Croatian Ȥۤʤʬ줿ʹߡߤθ۵äŪʾ줫ӽȤ lexical cleansing ȤƤ롥ʤīǤ⡤θäʸӽ챿ưƳƤ롥

륤᥸󡦥ˡ ԡˡظȤϲ١ҡ2000ǯ

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2013-07-19 Fri

#1544. εȿʲǯɽ [origin_of_language][evolution][timeline][homo_sapiens][anthropology][language_family]

#41. ʸˤ ([2009-06-08-1])#751. ϵ46ǯΤߤΤʤǤοȸ ([2011-05-18-1]) εǸεȿʲǯɽ򼨤꡼¾ԤΡؿʸ޴աθεš (17) ꡤ⤦1Ĥθǯɽ򼨤

50,000 BC   եꥫονиʺǿοǯ
45,000 BC   
   ȥꥢؤΰư
40,000 BC   ۥ⡦ԥ󥹡֤¸ߤ򼨺ʣʹưͼʪŪڵ¸ߡ
35,000 BC   
30,000 BC   ͥǥ륿ͤλǡǤ⸶Ūʸ
25,000 BC   
20,000 BC   
15,000 BC   ¿Υԡʿˡ10,000?15,000
   ǽɹϴνꡨ桼饷²γ
   ؤΰưȡɸ²
10,000 BC   
   ؤΰưȡʡǥ͸²
5,000 BC   ȥͥ²γ硨Ѥؤΰư
   ɡ衼åĸ
   ɡ衼åѸ²κǸŤεϿҥåȸ졤󥹥åȸ
0   ŵ졧奮ꥷ졤ƥ
500   ޥ󥹸ɡޥɤȯűѸ
1000   
1500   ̱ϻ塨ԥȥ쥪ȯɸγȤꡨǤβ®
2000   


ǯɽǸڤƤͥǥ륿ͤϡۥ⡦ԥ󥹤10ǯ˹͸ųؤεϿо줹23ǯ3ǯˤƤͥǥ륿ͤϹƬޤ⤤֤ˤȤɤޤäƤꡤư¤Ƥᡤȯ뤳ȤΤǤ벻褬¤ƤȹͤƤ롥ϷͤԤáԤʤɤʣʼҲư򼨤͸ųŪʾڵ򤬤뤳Ȥ顤Τ褦ʼҲΩɬǤȤƽŪʸ¸ߤȤ롥
ʲϡƱǯɽִФ褦ֳ֤ˤȤäСǤ롥

50,000 BC   եꥫονиʺǿοǯ
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
45,000 BC   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   ȥꥢؤΰư
   
40,000 BC   ۥ⡦ԥ󥹡֤¸ߤ򼨺ʣʹưͼʪŪڵ¸ߡ
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
35,000 BC   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
30,000 BC   ͥǥ륿ͤλǡǤ⸶Ūʸ
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
25,000 BC   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
20,000 BC   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
15,000 BC   ¿Υԡʿˡ10,000?15,000
   
   
   
   
   
   ǽɹϴνꡨ桼饷²γ
   
   ؤΰưȡɸ²
   
10,000 BC   
   
   
   
   
   
   ؤΰưȡʡǥ͸²
   
   
   
5,000 BC   ȥͥ²γ硨Ѥؤΰư
   
   
   
   ɡ衼åĸ
   
   
   ɡ衼åѸ²κǸŤεϿҥåȸ졤󥹥åȸ
   
   
0   ŵ졧奮ꥷ졤ƥ
500   ޥ󥹸ɡޥɤȯűѸ
1000   
1500   ̱ϻ塨ԥȥ쥪ȯɸγȤꡨǤβ®
2000   


Сʡɡ꡼ƥ󡦥ޥ塼ޥꥢݥ󥹥 ԡ ˼ ؿʸ޴աθεš١νӡ2005ǯ

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2013-07-18 Thu

#1543. [geolinguistics][geography][sociolinguistics][demography][language_shift][language_death][world_languages][terminology]

֥ȥΡظء٤ɤߡؤδͻȤʥץ˵Ť줿ˤŪ¦̤ϡĴѲŤ (linguistic area; see [2012-12-01-1]) θʤɤȤϤƤޤΤΤȤߤʤ졤ɽŪʴؿʧƤʤäȤ뤫⤷ʤΤȤϡ#1053. Ⱦȵڸ̡ ([2012-03-15-1]) εǤ⿨줿
ءءؤʤɤȸƤϤϤ礦ɸμҲؤҲؤȤʬӤ롥Trudgill (56) Ѹ콸 geolinguistics ƤߤȡƤꡤθƾΤˤ2Ĥ¦̤̤Ƥ롥

(1) A relatively recent label used by some linguists to refer to work in sociolinguistics which represents a synthesis of Labovian secular linguistics and spatial dialectology. The quantitative study of the geographical diffusion of words or pronunciations from one area to another is an example of work in this field. (2) A term used by human geographers to describe modern quantitative research on geographical aspects of language maintenance and language shift, and other aspects of the spatial relationships to be found between languages and dialects. An example of such work is the study of geographical patterning in the use of English and Welsh in Wales. Given the model of the distinction between sociolinguistics and the sociology of language, it might be better to refer to this sort of work as the geography of language.


ŪѲŤθǤϡܤŪʬۤ餫ˤȤȤǤ뤫顤ϡءפȸƤ֤٤ (1) ΰ֥ȥˤƤΤϡָءפȸƤ֤٤ (2) ΰǤ롥Ԥϡ̱²佡ȤкѤʤɤǤϤʤȤݤ˾ƤؤǤ롤Ȥ롥
ؤǰ¿ˤ錄뤬ɽ1Ĥˡ#1540. Ѹˤء ([2013-07-15-1]) ǶŪˤˡŬѤ褦 (language shift) 롥ޤƤ椯¸ܻؤꡤλ⡤üԿ͸οܤȤäؤνפʴؿνŪʬۤȤϡҤθȤǰͿ롥ʸŪʬۤƱͤǤ롥
֥ȥǤΩƤ褦ȤƤؤɤΤ褦ʤسԤĤΤʤΤľܥ֥ȥ˸äƤ餪

ɡؼԤϡҲ˳ŪкѳŪʼοʸݤȸȤΤζŪشطγΩ˽ϤƤΤǤ롥Ǥ⡤ĶʪŪĶȤشطϤΤΤǤ롥줬ĶľƯΤǤʤʾ塤ˤĤƤֳؤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ٤Ƥθϡ̱ȼʬۤ򼨤Ƥꡤ̱ϸδĶǤ⤢롥äƤޤ̤θʹֽĤֳؤ¸ߤΤǤ롥ƤʸŪħ졽ĤδޤϤĤδĶǡ¾ʸŪҲŪкŪüƱͤΡ뤤ϰۤʤäǡɤΤ褦˳礷ɤΤ褦˰ݻɤΤ褦Ǥ餫ˤˤϡؼԤϤޤ˻ʽʬǤ롥(29--30)


ºݤˤϥ֥ȥϡؤ򡤤礭ʸؤؤȷӤĤ褦ȤƤ롥

ݤʸݤ2Ĥΰ̩ʬ뤳ȤˤäƤΤߡͼŪΤ褦ʳǰѤ뤳ȤǽȤʤꡤͼϰϤʸŪʽΤϰϤȤӤ뤳ȤǤ롥ʸŪΤǤ⡤ŪŪŪ°Ȥäۤʤ뼡ΤϡĹΤǧƤ饨ˡ̱²ŪƱΡˤ修ļҲĤȤȤä褦ʡ줾ζ̤б붦ƱΤ乽¤ˤĤƤǧƤΤǤ롥ʸνħؤ顤Ϥޤʸ켫ΤؤؤȶŤȤǤ롥ʤҲθŪŪŪʰ仺ӤĤƻ׹ְͤռȤθŪʽηϤߤ褦ʸνΤ˴ؤؤءǤ롥ʸؤϤ椨ˡ礭ʤ뤤ϼҲΤοʹֽĤ򸫶ˤ뤳ȤŪȤ롥νĤϡ˱²ˡȡʸΰñ̤ʤɤƱ뤵ΤǤ롥ؼԤϤνĤֳؤ򡤤ưȯŪ߰¸ˤεǽŪʳ¸٤ޤϻ١ʸμƤȤäŪޤϽŪʸݤˤ뿻ƩϤʤɤ¦̤鸦椹롥кѳư̤ͥǧƤǤϡʸؤϼҲǷкѿͤȿФ¦¸ߤƤΤʬȤ̿ӤӤƤΤǤ롥(32--33)


פˡ֥ȥλϡҲˤȤɴѤΤȤǸŪ¦̤˾ƤȤȤǤ롥ʲϡɴѤȾδط޼ΤǤʥ֥ȥp. 47֥ˡΰŪħסˡμҲؤҲؤΤθޤȤƤǤ롥

General Characteristics of Ethnie


ʤΰʸѤƤˡȤǰѸˤĤƤϡ#1539. ethnie ([2013-07-14-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
󡦥֥ȥ ͵ ظء١ҡʸ˥ӡ1988ǯ

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2013-07-17 Wed

#1542. ³ȤƤ for [conjunction][syntax][prototype][coordinator][subordinator]

³ȤѤ for ˡ롥ʸŪǤϤ뤬ƤФŪʺ­Ū˽Ҥ٤ȤѤ롥񤭸դǤ for ˥ޡߥ󡤥åʤɤζ֤졤ڤٻߤȼʸ򤤤Ĥ󤲤褦

It was just twelve o'clock, for the church bell was ringing.
We listened eagerly, for he brought news of our families.
I believed her --- for surely she would not lie to me.
He found it increasingly difficult to read, for his eyesight was beginning to fail.
She remained silent, for her heart was heavy and her spirits low.
The man was different from the others, with just a hint of sternness. For he was a coroner.


for ϡͳҤ٤ŵŪʽ°³Ǥ because, since, as ʤɤˡʬŪ˽Ťʤ롥ºݤʤɤǤ "I did it for they asked me to do it." ʤɤľܤͳҤ٤ because ˶ᤤ⤢롥Ĥǡbecause ʤɤν°³ȤŪۤʤꡤ椨ष³Ȥʬव뤳Ȥ⤢롥
㤨Сfor Ƴ˻äƤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ (ex. * For he was unhappy, he asked to be transferred.) ޤit is . . . that ζĴʸζĴΰ֤ for äƤ뤳ȤϤǤʤbecause A and because C ʤɤ and ˤ֤Ǥ뤬for A and for B ʤɤȤϤǤʤľ just, only, simply, chiefly ʤɤ֤ȤǤʤ
for ³餷̿񤤤򼨤ȤΤǤ롥㤨СŵŪ³ or ǤϡI may see you tomorrow or may phone later in the day. ʤɤȼ줬Ʊ硤2ˤϾάǤ뤬for ǤϾάǤʤ (ex. * He did not want it, for was obstinate)
Quirk et al. (927--28) ϡ°³³ʬŪʴϤʤȤʤ⡤Ūˤ for ԤʬहΤŬڤȹͤƤ롥if because Τ褦 prototypical ʽ°³ǤϤʤΤΡprototypical ³Ǥ and or γ֤Τۤ礭ȽǤƤ롥Quirk et al. (927) ˤŪ6ȡ̤齾°ؤϢ³򼨤ɽʲ˵󤲤褦ɽΡ֡ޡפϾˤäƤϳܤʤäꤹ뤳Ȥ򡤡֡ߡפ (and) yetand ʤɤ֤ǤդǤ뤳Ȥ򼨤

(a) It is immobile in front of its clause.
(b) A clause beginning with it is sequentially fixed in relation to the previous clause, and hence cannot be moved to a position in front of that clause.
(c) It does not allow a conjunction to precede it.
(d) It links not only clauses, but predicates and other clause constituents.
(e) It can link subordinate clauses.
(f) It can link more than two clauses, and when it does so all but the final instance of the linking item can be omitted.

Table 13.18 Coordination--conjunct--subordination gradients
Coordination--Conjunct--Subordination Gradients


ʤOED MED ˤȡŪˤ³ȤƤ for ϡűѸ줫Ѹؤβϴ˽ФƤ롥


1123 Peterb.Chron. (LdMisc 636) an.1123: Ac hit naht ne beheld, for se biscop of Særes byrig wæs strang.
c1150 Serm. in Kluge Ags. Lesebuch 71 Hwu sceal þiss gewurðen, for ic necann naht of weres gemane.
1154 Anglo-Saxon Chron. anno 1135, On þis kinges time wes al unfrið..for agenes him risen sone þa rice men.


ñΤ³ȤѤ for ȤȤơűѸǤ ðe ȼä³첽 forþam, forþan, forði 줿13ˤ for that ʤɤ compound connective ⸽줿³ȤƤϼŪǤϤΤΡƳȸŤˤäƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-07-27-1] [2023-03-02-1]

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2013-07-16 Tue

#1541. Mind you θ [imperative][word_order][syntax][emode]

ѸǤϡ2;ΤФ̿ʸǤϡ̾ you Ͼά롥Ф뤤ɽ路ꡤοͤؤ᤹̿ˤϡäˤ you 뤳Ȥ⾯ʤʤξˤ "Come on! You open up and tell me everything." Τ褦ˡyou ư֤֤졤ȼ
ѸޤǤϡ you thou ά줺ɽФˤϡưθ֤˸줿ڡ켣 (406) Ӻٹ (149) ˰ѤƤ롤Shakespeare 񤫤󤲤褦

Bring thou the master to the citadel (Oth II. i. 211)
So in the Lethe of thy angry soul Thou drown the sad remembrance of those wrongs Which thou supposest I have done to thee. (R 3 IV. iv. 250--2)
So speak ye, and do so. --- James, ii. 12.
Go, and do thou likewise. --- Luke, x. 37.


18ʹߤϡ줬ư֤礬ͥȤʤä̿ʸǤϡޤ "Don't you be so sure of yourself." Τ褦ˡyou don't θ֤֤ʶ don't ΤۤˡϡŤѸ̾ĤǤ롥Ʊͤ̾ĤˡѸ mind you, mark you, look you ʤɤ󤲤롥 you ưŪǤϤʤޤ̿ʸˤ줿Ǥ롥⡤֤褯ʹ˺ʡäƤפۤɤΰ̣ǡάȯäˤäƳȤʹդȤѤ롥you ˶֤롥

Mind you, this is just between you and me.
Cellphones are becoming more and more popular. Mind you, I don't like cellphones.
I've heard they're getting divorced. Mind you, I'm not surprised --- they were always arguing.
She hasn't had much success yet. Mark you, she tries hard.
Her uncle's just given her a car --- given, mark you, not lent.


OED ˤȡmind you ν1768ǯʸ12bˡmark you Shakespeare ʸ27bˡlook you Shakespeare ʸ4aˤǤꡤѸθˡȤȤˤʤ롥ʤLook ye. ָפˤĤƤϡ#781. How d'ye do? ([2011-06-17-1]) ε⻲ȡ

ͺ켣 رѸIIIA١Ѹ10罤۽Ź1984ǯ
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-05-08-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-07-15 Mon

#1540. Ѹˤ [reestablishment_of_english][language_shift][geolinguistics]

ε#1539. ethnie ([2013-07-14-1]) ǡ֥ˡפȤؤγǰѸƳ (language shift) 갷ǤȤ櫓פǤ롥Ŀͤ䤽νĤ򡤰Ǥ줬Ǥ뤫˾Ƥ륨ˡȤ顤¾Ǥ̱²ȤʬषȤ߹碌䤽ѲưŪˤȤ館ȡؤͭ˵Ҥ뤳Ȥǽˤʤ롥
֥ȥ (54) ϡ饤ʿ͡͡饤ʸ졤δ֤ƤؤˤȤäƿ޼ߤƤ뤬ǤϱԤȤѸ˥󥰥ɿ͡ե󥹡ʥΥޥ˿͡Ѹ졤ե󥹸δ֤Ƥؤ޼褦

Language Shift in ME (Table)

ʸ E, F Ϥ줾̱²ɽ魯桤ʸ e, f Ϥ줾θɽ魯Ǥ롥Ȥ߹碌μѲˤꡤؤʳҤ롥 Ee ϡѸΤߤäƤ󥰥ɿͤɽ魯Ѹ¿ν̱°롥̤Υե󥹸ܤ뵡¿ήʤɤ°륤󥰥ɿͤϡե󥹸2ȤƽEef ΥХ󥬥ȤʤäƤäŪˤϡʳʤСѸȥե󥹸ννžե󥹸줬1ȤơѸ줬2ȤƽȤʤ󥰥ɿͤˤѸʸȤؿʤǤ⤷ʤºݤˤϤޤǤˤϻʤä
ǤϡΥޥ塤󥰥ɤؤäƤե󥹡ʥΥޥ˿ͤθؤϤɤΤ褦˿ʤޤϡ1ȤƤΥե󥹸줷ʤ Ff Ȥʬव롥12ʹߡ˱Ѹ줬󥰥ɼҲƤ椯ˤĤ졤ΤʤˤϱѸ2ȤƽΤ⸽褦ˤʤäFfe ʳˡ˱Ѹ첽ʤǤ椯ȡѸ1졤ե󥹸2ȤƽΤFef ʳˡǸ˱ѸΥΥ󥬥ˤʤäƤäFe ʳˡ줬Ѹ˼ºݤ˵äե󥹿ͤαѸʸƤήǤ롥󥰥ɤǤϡʾΤ褦ˡѸȥե󥹸Τǥ󥰥ɿͤȥե󥹿ͤˤؤʹԤƤΤǤ롥
ؤȳȻϤϡ1ѼԤ2ѼԤοǷޤ롥֥ȥ (70) ˤСȻؿȤϡ2ȤƤüԿ1ȤƤüԿdzäͤǤ롥󥰥ɤǹͤȡ夷Ф餯δ֤ϥե󥹸2Ȥƽ륤󥰥ɿ͡ʬҡˤäˡΤȤƥե󥹸γȻؿ礭ʤäĤޤꡤʤ˥ե󥹸γȻϤäȤȤǤ롥˱ѸʤˤĤ졤Ѹ2Ȥƽե󥹿͡ʬҡˤο褦ˤʤꡤषѸγȻؿΤۤ礭ʤä
ο޼ˤ̻Ūʼľܤˤɽ蘆Ƥʤ˱Ѹ줫ե󥹸ؤθؤȤ夤Ĭήʾʤκ鱦ؤ2ܤˡ˥ե󥹸줫ѸؤθؤȤĬήʲʤα麸ؤ3ܤˤȤȤǰƬ˲᤹ȡ狼䤹碌ơʲοޤ⻲ȡ

Language Shift in ME (Figure)

󡦥֥ȥ ͵ ظء١ҡʸ˥ӡ1988ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-07-14 Sun

#1539. ethnie [sociolinguistics][geolinguistics][terminology]

ͼ²̱²ȡʤɤߴطʣǤ롥ʣλ򤭤ۤꡤɤΤ褦ޤäƤΤͻΤҲؤλŻΤˤϤ줾γǰбʹֽĤɽ魯ɽɬפǤ롥ͼ²̱²ȤȤΤ򤷤䤹ȤϤʤüԽĤȤ춦ƱΤȸƤ֤ȤϤǤ뤬äüŪɽߤǡˡ (ethnie) ȤѸ줬߽Ф줿֥ȥ (51) ˤСˡȤƾΤϡʲνĤФͿ٤Ǥ롥

Ūñ̤Ǥ뤳Ȥ򤽤ħȤȯεŪˤ뽸ġʿͼˤȤϰۤʤΡ˿²طˤӤĤʻ²²ˤǤʤޤʸŪħʣΡ̱²ˤǤŪħʣΡʹ̱ˤǤʤ褦ʽĤФƤǤ롥̩ʰ̣ǥˡϡؼԤ̱²ؼԤθԶ콸 (G.L.M.)ա⤦ۣʤǤϡ̱²콸ġդ⤷ϡԸ춦ƱΡդƱΤǤ롥äƥˡȤϡοŪŪŪ°ɤǤ졤ƱĸġͤνΤȤȤˤʤ롥


λ򤵤Ƥж콸 (G.L.M. = "groupe de langue maternelle") 춦ƱΤȤƾΤǤ褤֥ˡפȤɽdzǰ򥫥ץ벽ƤޤгΤǤ롥ˤꡤ衤ֱѸüԽġפƤ "native (or L1) speakers of English" ϡֱѸ쥨ˡפüŪȤǤ롥
̩ǤϥˡϤȤäĤؤ2ȤƤüԽĤޤ᤿ˤѤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤξˤüԤʤΤüԤʤΤʬΤŬڤʤȤ֥ȥ (52) ϡԤ ethnophone ̱²üԡˡԤ allophone ̱²üԡˤȸƤǤ롥ѸˤС"native (or L1) speakers of English" ϡֱѸ쥨Υե̡ס"L2 speakers of English" ϡֱѸ쥢ե̡פȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥ơξԹ碌 "speakers of English" ϡˤ̣ǤΡֱѸ쥨ˡפȤƸƤ֤ȤǤ롥
ۤʤ륨ˡ֤θưҲŪˤĤưƱĴ٤ȤäؤβФ륢ץޤ줿ǰǤѸǤ롥ѤǤ

󡦥֥ȥ ͵ ظء١ҡʸ˥ӡ1988ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-07-13 Sat

#1538. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis οŸ [sapir-whorf_hypothesis][linguistic_relativism][neurolinguistics]

#1484. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis ([2013-05-20-1]) ˤĤơǯؤи (neurolinguistics) ΥץΩĤ褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥ƱθϡŪʴ졤ʸӤȤˡäƤƤ롥
иؤΩ줫ߤȡ#1515. ϿοǤ ([2013-06-20-1]) ˤ褦ˡָˤϡ˸ͭؤϤʤסϡʹְʳưʪˤäƤ붦̤οеǽΤۤ夲줿٤ʳؽǽϤȿǤǤ롥
ؤȤФȻ׹͡٤ԤǤ뺣ϡλ¤Ĵʤ顤ˤ Sapir-Whorf hypothesis ο񤬤롤Ʊΰյϡưʪʤӿʹ֤֤ˤȿʹ֤ȤΤ˲礭ʹ¤뤳Ȥˤ⤹롥

ưʪȿʹ֤ΰ㤤ϿӤ礭ñ˰Ҥΰ㤤Ǿι¤ΰ㤤ˤ٤ƵΤǤϤʤʹ֤ǧδäˤʤۤȤɤǤϡʹְʳưʪˤⶦͭƤ롥ȤФäοʹ֤֤ǧϡʹ֤ͤ⡤ưʪΤ˶ᤤȤäƤ褤⤷ʤʹְʳưʪȿʹ֤λҤɤδ֤礭ۤʤΤϡäƤμȤäơ˳ؽƤؽǽϤʤΤϡ䤿ʹ֤ˡãˤäƤǤ¸ߤμ뤳Ȥǽˤʾˡ줿μȤǤʤʬμϤꡤ­ˤμȯŸƤƻʹ֤ͿΤȤФǧδطȤȡ㤦üԤǧ㤦ݤȤ˶̣ޤ꤬ۤʤ줬üԤˤɤΤ褦ǧΰ㤤⤿餹Τ뤳ȤϡΤˤȤƤʤȤŪˤäơΡۤʤüԤδ֤ǧΰ㤤ꡤؽ뤳ȤˤäƤ롤Ҥɤ⤫ͤؤΡ̿ȤäƤ褤ۤɤ礭ǧȻ׹ͤƤղοǤȹͤƤ褤ΤǤϤʤ182--83


Ȼ׹ͤδطͤˡϤ䡤ñˡۤʤüԤδ֤ǧ㤦ƱȤռϡԽʬǡʳŪʴϡ٤ȤäƤ褤޻䤿ʤФʤʤȤϡ䤿ŪǧȻ׹---뤳ȡʹȡ򤷲᤹뤳ȡ뤳ȡפФȡͽ¬뤳ȡ뤳ȡƳؽ뤳---˸줬ɤΤ褦˴ؤäƤΤλȤߤܤ餫ˤ뤳ȤǤ롥ξǡۤʤ줬줾ǧȻ׹ͤˤɤΤ褦˴ؤΤδؤʸˡˤ빽¤ŪħäħˤäƤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤΤȤ˼ȤǤȤˤʤ214--15


Sapir-Whorf hypothesis ϡɤоȤȤǤϤʤ̤֤콬̤Ƹ֤ؤȻļ˱äƺƲ᤹٤ȤƤȤǤ롥
ˡϡ׹ͤǧˤ볰ؽθѤˤĤơΤ褦ŪΤʰոҤ٤ƤʸʸηϡǤˤƤˡ

ĤθʤĤޤˤΤʤȡǤڤʬɤǤɸŪʤΤȻפߡ¾θǤϡޤä̤ڤʬ򤹤ΤȤȤ˵դʤ礬¿ٶϤʬȻפäƤڤʬ¤ǤϤʤޤä̤ʬǤΤȤȤ狼äƤ롥ΡֵŤפϡ켫Τ׹ͤƤȤäƤ褤СٶϤ뤳ȤǡγΥͥƥƱֻ׹͡פ櫓ǤϤʤˤƤ⡤Υե륿̤ƤƤʤä̤λ鸫뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤΤǤ롥ĤޤꡤХ󥬥ˤʤ뤳Ȥˤꡤ뤳ȤǤΤϡγüԤƱǧΤΤǤϤʤ̤ǧͣɸǧǤϤʤƱΡƱݤʣǧȤߤª뤳ȤǽǤȤǧʤΤǤ롥ʬθ졦ʸ뤤θ졦ʸ濴ˤΤǤϤʤ͡ʸΥե륿̤͡ǧȤߤ¸ߤ뤳Ȥռ뤳---줬¿˽Ϥ뤳Ȥˤ⤿餵롤äȤ礭ʻ׹ͤƤʤΤɮԤϹͤ롥222--23


ͤƤγؽ˴ؤؤиؤȤٻ줿ȴ롥

ĤߡؤȤФȻ׹͡١ȽŹҴȿӡ2010ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2013-07-12 Fri

#1537. פˤޤĤ3Ĥ [sociolinguistics][terminology][linguistic_right]

פϸؤѸȤ櫓ǤϤʤ̤ˤؤˤ⹭ȤƤ롥Ѹ "mother tongue", ե󥹸 "langue maternelle", ɥĸ "Muttersprache" ǤꡤθפȤƱǤ롥ŵŪƤ齬롤üԤˤȤäƤ1ΤȤǤꡤʸƾΤΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤפȤѸˤϤĤ꤬ޤޤƤ롥Ǥ夷ƤѸǤꡤȤΤ򹵤ȤΤ񤷤ŦƤȤϽפ
1ܤϡѸˤޤĤɽŪǤ롥줫Ȥ᡼ϾŪǤϤ뤬¤ˤʳʹΤϤǤ⤢롥ȤϤޤܰԤ̾ǤȤϼȤƤ⡤#1495. ä٤ޥʸ multilingualism ([2013-05-31-1]) Ǽ褦ˡҲ٤Ȥθ줬1Ȥʤ褦ʸ¸ߤ롥ξˤϡषפθƾΤդ路
2ܤϡˤĤƤǤ롥Ǥ1ȤɽѤ줬ްդΤϡȤüԤǽ˽ؤȤȤǤ롥ۤȤɤξ硤ǤޤˤäޤȿŪºߤȤƤȤפʤޤˤ뤫⤷ʤ֥ȥ (34--35) ˤʲʸϤ򻲾ȡ

ȤĴ»ܤ뤿ͿƤ¿ͤʡΡϡŪȿŪȤ2ĤεΤԤĤ뤿餤ȿǤƤ롥ԤϤĤޤꡤϺǽθǤȤȤǤꡤԤϡͤä³ʤ󤺤ǻ׹ͤ줬ǤȤ櫓Ǥ롥ǯȤǯˤƽȤȤҴŪǤϰ̤˺ǤפȤƤʥɡᥭեԥ󡤥ʥ⡼ꥷ㥹ʤɡˡ¿ѤκĥΤ褦ʹϡȤϼʬ֤褯狼äƤȿĤǻ׹ͤȤȤΤ˼Ƥ롥ʤѤ褦Ȥ⡤줿餷ƤܼŪ˽פʲͤȡ줬ĿͤμҲʸŪ°˴ؤƽפʻɸǤ뤳ȤˤĤƤϡ̤˸ΰפ򸫤Ƥ롥


3ܤˡܼŪüԸĿͤ°ȤƤ줬ѸȤƼҲŪʸ̮˸ȤۤȤɵդ뤳Ȥʤΰ̣ƤҲ񲽤졤椬ƤޤȤ꤬롥㤨СUNESCO 1953 ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ơǤζεʸƤ롥

On educational grounds we recommend that the use of the mother tongue be extended to as late a stage in education as possible. In particular, pupils should begin their schooling through the medium of the mother tongue, because they understand it best and because to begin their school life in the mother tongue will make the break between home and school as small as possible.


տޤȤɿŪǤꡤݤˤϻǤ롥"the mother tongue" ȤѸ줬ȤҲŪʸ̮Ѥ뤳ȤˤꡤŪüԸĿͤȷӤĤƤϤ꤬ҲؤȤؤ줨褦˻פ롥
üԸĿͤˤȤäȤΤʶʤŪºߤȤƤ⡤θ줬ҲŪΩȤǧΤƤ뤫ɤǤ롥㤨Сθ줬ҿ1Ȥư֤ŤƤˤΩȤ̾ͿƤʤǽ롥ξˤϡüԤǤζεͿ뤳ȤϤʤޤüܿͤθ򿽹𤹤ݤˡ򿽹𤷤ʤǽ⤢롥Romain (37) ˤСꥹˤơ Panjabi äѥϤο͡ϡ Panjabi üԤǤϤʤѥιǤ Urdu üԤǤȿ𤹤ȤˤϸιŪŪװǤ롥
Ū˸Ŀͤ°ȤơʤĿ͸ (idiolect) ȤƲ᤹ΤǤСǤζȤüԤοब뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Τ褦˶ܤȤ󸽼ŪǡݲѼ (variety) ȤªΤǤСѼϸʤΤʤΤȤƬˤҲŪ˵ꤷƤޤҲŪʸ̮Ѥ줿ȤѸϡǤ˼Ҳ񲽤줿̣ƤäƤޤäƤΤǤ롥

󡦥֥ȥ ͵ ظء١ҡʸ˥ӡ1988ǯ
Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.

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2013-07-11 Thu

#1536. ǤʤعǤλѤػߤƤ Bislama [pidgin][map]

Vanuatu ¹ʿΡͥ⤫Ǥ롥ˤ100ʾΥͥϸ줬äƤ뤬Ѹ١ǴʬΥե󥹸äޤԥ Bislama (or Beach-la-Mar) ȤƹѤƤ롥ޤѸȤƱѸȥե󥹸줬ԤʤƤ롥

Map of Vanuatu

Vanuatu 1774ǯ˥ꥹ Captain Cook õơthe New Hebrides ̿̾줿19Ⱦαʩ̱η㲽Фơ1906ǯˤǤʩƱ֤졤ʩξ줬ѸȤ줿1980ǯ˶¹ȤΩߤ˻äƤ롥
ĤʿΤιȤ Vanuatu ˤˬ줿Ȥ뤬ۤ˺ʤϤ Bislama ΥݥåȲýΤ褦ʤΤä褦ˤפιͤȤƤϱѸѤ­ȤǤΤǡBislama İϤۤȤɤʤäȤƤ϶٤Υѥץ˥塼˥ Tok PisinPijin ȶ᤯ʬŪߤ̤礦
ơBislama Ǥ뤳Ȥϡ1980ǯΩ˵Ƥ줿ˡ 3. (1) ǤʲΤ褦Ƥ롥

3. (1) The national language of the Republic of Vanuatu is Bislama. The official languages are Bislama, English and French. The principal languages of education are English and French.


ιθˤĤƴ̯ʤȤ롥ˡˤƤʹ줿 Bislama ޲ȤƸˤϵƤƤʤΤǤ롥θϤޤDZѸȥե󥹸Ǥ롥Romain (194) ϡξؤơVanuatu ϹλѤػߤƤͣι񤫤⤷ʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

Although Bislama is recognized by the constitution of Vanuatu as the national language of the country, paradoxically it is forbidden in the schools. Thus, Vanuatu may be the only country in the world which forbids the use of its national language! English and French, the languages of the former colonial powers, are still the official languages of education.


ºݤˤϡعˤ Bislama λѤ˶ػߤƤȤȤǤϤʤعǤϤʸ̮ȤѤ뤳ȤϤ褦ޤ2011ǯˤ "Proposed vernacular education" ƤƤȤ顤ʩФθμҲŪΩ˾徺ƤƤΤ

Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.

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2013-07-10 Wed

#1535. non-prevocalic /r/ μҲŪʲ [sociolinguistics][rhotic][pronunciation]

ѸѼˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ˤĤƤϡ#406. Labov New York City /r/ ([2010-06-07-1]) ϤȤ rhotic γƵǰäƤnon-prevocalic /r/ ̵ͭϡѸˤҲŪѥ (sociolinguistic pattern) 򼨤ǤŵŪѰۤ1ĤȤäƤ褤Ҳ񳬵ˤä /r/ ȯΨۤʤȤȯϡΤޤ޼Ҳؤβڡǥӥ塼Ȥʤä
non-prevocalic /r/ ϼҲ񳬵ȤδطƺȤΤʤǸ뤳Ȥ¿εκΥݥȤϡ/r/ ФȽǤϡβˤäŪޤΤǤϤʤҲŪװˤäŪޤˤʤȤȤѸ /r/ ˤ͡ʲŪ¸뤬ΰ۲ȤäƤ⡤ʹ֤μˤȤäŪǤȤǤȤΤ褦ɾ򼨤ҴŪʻ¤ϤۤȤɤʤˤ⤷Τ褦ʤȤäȤƤ⡤ҲŪɾˤäƤȤñˤäƤޤ/r/ ɾϡҤȤ˼ҲŪդ줿ͤ˰¸롥äơꥫȥꥹΤ褦˼Ҳ񤬰ۤʤ /r/ ɾϰۤʤ뤷ƱҲǤ夬Ѥ /r/ ɾѤꤦ롥
Romain (68) ˵󤲤Ƥ롤ꥫ New York City ȥꥹ Reading 2ĤĮˤ볬̤ non-prevocalic /r/ ΨоŪįСˤɾŪǤ롥

New York CityReadingSocial class
320upper middle class
2028lower middle class
1244upper working class
049lower working class


⤷ /r/ βŪΤǤСήΡʤäơɸŪǫʡȯäˤơNew York City Ǥ Reading ǤƱͤ non-prevocalic /r/ ΨޤϤǤ롥ºݤˤ Reading ȿФΨη򼨤Ƥ롥ϡnon-prevocalic /r/ ФɾޤǼҲŪޤäƤˤʤȤƤ롥
εϡ̸ФȽǤȤŪˤ⤽ΤޤޱѤǤ롥ФȽǤϡθŪʲͤ˴ŤŪȽǤǤϤʤҲŪ˰ޤ줿ƥ쥪פˤʤäơϤѤäꡤ夬ѤäꤹСβȽǤȤѤꤦΤǤ롥Υƥ쥪פ˴ؤäˤĤƤϡGiles and Niedzielski "Italian is Beautiful, German is Ugly" Ǥ롥

Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.
Giles, Howard and Nancy Niedzielski. "Italian is Beautiful, German is Ugly." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 85--93.

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2013-07-09 Tue

#1534. Dyirbal ˤʸˡ [gender][sapir-whorf_hypothesis][linguistic_relativism]

űѸޤ²νˤʸˡ (grammatical gender) ¸ߤ롥¾νˤʸˡȤʸˡƤĤΤʤʤʤʸˡ¸ߤΤȤŪ϶̸̣ʸˡηϤŪ뤳Ȥ񤷤#1135. ĸʸˡε ([2012-06-05-1]) εǤȯ˴ؤѡάŪˤߤФ褽̮ΤʤΤʸˡǤ롥Ʊ²°ΤΡۤɽ魯̾ϡűѸǽ (sunne) ե󥹸 (soleil) (coлhцe) Ǥ롥
οˤäưۤʤ롥#487. ʰʸˡ ([2010-08-27-1]) Ǹ褦ˡ3뤤2ζ̤¿ѸΤ褦ʸˡüΤ⤢롥²鳰ܤܤȡ¿̤⤢롥Τ褦ʸǤΤۤŪʥ٥ͤǤϫǤꡤäΤIࡤIIࡤIIIʤɤ̾դۤ褤
ʸˡϤФüԽĤѤ佡ѤȿǤȤ뤬ˤĤƼҲؤΥƥȤʤɤǤ褯ڤˡȥꥢθ̱ˤää Dyirbal 줬Ethnologue Dyirbal ȥꥢθϿαü򻲾ȡˡθǤϡ̾줬4ĤΥ饹ʬवƤ롥ƥ饹°̾ŵϰʲ̤Ǥʺ桤p. 32 ˡ

쥯饹ġ֥Х (Bayi) --- ʹ֤ˡ󥬥롼ݥåͭξưʪˡꡤإӤʬʬĻΰʬʬ֡󡤰
󥯥饹ġ֥Х (Balan) --- ʹ֤νХǥȡ淿ͭˡ̡ΥϥΥإӡεۤȤɤĻ֡ꡤ䡤ڡ塤ФϤȤʤ
軰饹ġ֥Х (Balam) --- ٤¤Ȥμ¤Ȥ뿢ʪࡤϥߥġХ磻󡤥
ͥ饹ġ֥Х (Bala) --- Τ̡̪˪䡤ڤʬťС


绨ĤˤС쥯饹Ͽʹ֤ưʪ󥯥饹Ͽʹ֤ν塤СʤΡ軰饹Ͽʪοʪͥ饹ϤʳȤʬġ̾ˤĤƤ㳰ȸΤ¿ʬ˰ʤ褦˻פ롥
Dyirbal Ѥä򻲾ȤȡǤܤƤ롥Dyirbal ǤϵưʪȹͤƤꡤ§Ȥ쥯饹˽°Ƥ롥ޤϢơפפƱ쥯饹˽°뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Ȥ˥䥵ϴʵȤ󥯥饹롥Ļ󥯥饹äƤΤϡDyirbal οäǤĻȤߤʤƤ뤫ޤۤؤǤȤΤäΰǤ (Romain 27--28)
Τ褦 Dyirbal ʸˡζʬˡϡ#1484. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis ([2013-05-20-1]) ٻԤˤȤäƤϵŤʾڵ

ĤߡؤȤФȻ׹͡١ȽŹҴȿӡ2010ǯ
Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-02-17-1]

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2013-07-08 Mon

#1533. ȾóȻްռ (2) [wave_theory][neogrammarian][lexical_diffusion][implicational_scale][phonetics][ot]

ε[2013-07-07-1]˰³ѲˤޤĤ3ĤγǰδطˤĤơϡSecond Germanic Consonant Shift ([2010-06-06-1]) ŪȾ˳礷ɤΤ褦ʽǸä˥äƿʹԤȤ夲ϡѸνѼˤߤ -t/-d deletion Ȥݤܤ롥
-t/-d deletion Ȥϡmissed, grabbed, mist, hand ʤɤθλĺü벻Ǥ롥ɸŪάȯäǤϤ褯ߤ븽ݤ٤ϷֲĶˤäưۤʤȹͤƤ롥ͿŪʷֲĶȤϡθ줬 (1) mist Τ褦1 (monomorphemic) ʤ뤫 miss-ed Τ褦2 (bimorphemic) ʤ뤫(2) ³벻Ҳ (ex. missed train) 첻 (ex. missed Alice) 2Ǥ롥(1) 1 > 2, (2) Ҳ³ > 첻³ȤطΩ1ǤǻҲ³ -t/-d Ǥü䤹2Ǥ첻³ -t/-d ǤüˤȤȤͽۤ롥ͽۤ mist missed ˴ؤɽηȡʲΤ褦ˤʤRomain, p. 142 "Temporal development of varieties for the rule of -t/-d deletion" ˡ

Temporal Development of Varieties for the Rule of -<em>t</em>/-<em>d</em> Deletion


ϡ SGCS θ򼨤ɽƤ롥ǤϡѼˡֲĶ˱ơ-t deletion θ礬ʾʬۤʤƤ롥ѼؤγȤȤߤȾɽ魯ΤȤơǤߤóȻɽ魯ΤȤơ̻ŪʽζŪʸȤߤްռɽ魯ΤȤơɽ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥
2ηֲĶˤĤƤϡ-t/-d deletion θ˴ؤ (constraint) ȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥(1) ̣ͭ -ed ϾüˤȤ(2) ʻҲϢ³ʤ -t/-d ϾüˤȤȤƺƲǤ롥δ餹ȡ2Ĥθ̤ͥˤäơۤʤä -t/-d deletion ʬɽ뤳ȤˤʤˤơȾóȻްռȤäǰȡOptimality Theory ŬˤȤ⸫ƤΤǤϤʤ

Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-10-24-1] [2013-07-25-1]

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2013-07-07 Sun

#1532. ȾóȻްռ (1) [wave_theory][lexical_diffusion][implicational_scale][dialectology][german][geography][isogloss][consonant][neogrammarian][sgcs][germanic]

#1506. The Rhenish fan ([2013-06-11-1]) εǡϥɥĸϥɥĸʬˤäƸߤ˰פʤ¤ǧλ¤ˤϡǯʸˡ (Neogrammarians) ˤ벻ˡ§ΰΧŬѤȤΤǤϤʤषȾ (wave_theory) Ȥơ줴Ȥ˳礷Ƥ椯ΰ褬ۤʤΤȤߤʤɬפ롥
The Rhenish fan ̤ؤľ˽ǤϢΰۤʤϰ1--7̾դ褦ļ˼ꡤѰۤθҲޤ6 (ich, machen, dorf, das, apfel, pfund) 򲣼˼롥ȡSecond Germanic Consonant Shift ([2010-06-06-1]) θ̤ˤĤơʲΤ褦ʳʾʬۤ뤳ȤǤRomain, p. 138 "Isoglosses between Low and High German consonant shift: /p t k/ /(p)f s x/" ˡ

Isoglosses between Low and High German Consonant Shift

1Ǥ SGCS θ̤ϥ2Ǥ ich ˴ؤƤΤ߸̤Ƥ롥3Ǥ machen ˸̤ڤӡ4Ǥ dorf ˤڤ֡³Ƥ椭Ǹ7ˤäơ6줹٤ƤҲѲФȤˤʤ롥1--7ŪľϢ³Ǥ뤳ȤפФСɽϡѲȾ˳礷Ƥ椯ͻҡʤȾɽ魯ΤǤ뤳Ȥ餫
ơ1--7ľܤɽ魯ΤǤϤʤ1ˤɽ魯ΤȤƲᤷ褦ˤơ1ˤƤ SGCS θ̤ϤޤƤʤ2ˤƤ ich ˴ؤƸ̤Ƥ롥34ˤ machen, dorf 줾ѲФơ缡7 pfund ޤ³λˤäƤ褦䤯٤Ƥθˤ SGCS λ롥βȤСɽϡ֤ȤȤ SGCS ä˥褦ˤƿʹԤóȻ (lexical diffusion) ɽ魯ΤǤ뤳Ȥ餫
ļ1--7Ȥ٥ϡŪľ¤򼨤ΤȤȤ館뤳ȤǤС֤򼨤ΤȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥ԤȾ򡤸ԤϸóȻɽ路Ѳˤξδط褯򤵤ΤǤϤʤ
ˡɽϸѲȼްռ (implicational scale) 򼨺ƤǤͭյǤ롥6Τ줬 SGCS 򤹤Ǥ˷ФƤȤ狼äƤΤǤС뤤Ϥλˤơθ꺸¦ˤ뤹٤Ƥθ SGCS ФƤϤǤ롥ΤȤϱ¦θϺ¦θްդɽǤ롥ѲνȤ̻Ūʼȡɤθ줬 SGCS θ̤򼨤ͽ¬ǽǤȤŪʼȤߤȤͻ¤Ƥ롥
Ѳ implicational scale ˤĤƤϡ#841. yod-dropping ([2011-08-16-1]) ⻲ȡ

Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.

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2013-07-06 Sat

#1531. pidgin creole ʬ [pidgin][creole][map][geography][world_languages][tok_pisin][caribbean]

ˤ뤬100ʾΥԥ䥯쥪줬ŪѤƤȤ롥ʤˤ200ͤĶüԤʤ Tok Pisin Τ褦ʳȯʸ⤢롥ºݡTok Pisin ʿΤˤθǤ롥Ѹ lexifier Ȥ#463. Ѹ١Υԥȥ쥪ΰ ([2010-08-03-1]) ˤĤƤϤǤܥ֥ǸڤĤƤαƶϤͽ̤ۤꡤѸ١ΤΤǤ¿
Romain (170--73) Ͽޤ򻲾Ȥ lexifier ̤˥ԥȥ쥪θĿ夲ȡѸ줬35ե󥹸줬14ݥȥ줬9ڥ줬3줬3¾θ줬26Ȥʤ롥 * *
˻ߤΥԥȥ쥪ʬहΤˡ嵭Τ褦˸ä󶡤Ƥ졤ʤ superstratum θȤˡ뤬ۤϰȤʬ⤢롥Ūʬۤδԥ䥯쥪礭2ʬȡηʿηȤʬ롥Romain (174--75) Ѥ褦

Creolists recognize two major groups of languages, the Atlantic and the Pacific, according to historical, geographic, and linguistic factors. The Atlantic group was established primarily during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in the Caribbean and West Africa, while the Pacific group originated primarily in the nineteenth. The Atlantic creoles were largely products of the slave trade in West Africa which dispersed large numbers of West Africans to the Caribbean. Varieties of Caribbean creoles have also been transplanted to the United Kingdom by West Indian immigrants, as well as to the USA and Canada. The languages of the Atlantic share a West African common substrate and display many common features . . . . / In the Pacific different languages formed the substratum and socio-cultural conditions were somewhat different from those in the Atlantic. Although the plantation setting was crucial for the emergence of pidgins in both areas, in the Pacific laborers were recruited and indentured rather than slaves. Apart from Hawai'i, a history of more gradual creolization has distinguished the Pacific from the Atlantic (particularly Caribbean) creoles, whose transition has been more abrupt.


Τ褦Ūʬۤˤ2ʬˡξΤʣʴط뤳Ȥ򸫤ˤƤ뤭餤뤳ȤˤդƤ㤨Сξ˶ͭƤ (savvy "to know" picanniny "child, baby") ¸ߤϡ2Ĥγޤdzθˤޤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ

Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.

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2013-07-05 Fri

#1530. 󥰥ɻʾɽƤ Compa [abbreviation][italian][renaissance][etymology]

Fifty-Pound Banknote

ϥ󥰥ɤ50ݥɻμ̤Ǥ롥麸ˤơ"I PROMISE TO PAY THE BEARER ON DEMAND THE SUM OF FIFTY POUNDS For the Gov:r and Comp:a of the BANK of ENGLAND" Ȥʸɤ롥"Gov:r" governor"Comp:a" company άΤ褦άϰ̤ˤϤܤˤʤä company co ȾάΤ̤Ǥꡤcompa ºݤˡOED (compa | Compa, n.) 򻲾ȤȡߤǤϻʾˤɽȤƤλѤۤͣλǤȤ

1940 G. Crowther Outl. Money i. 25 Every Bank of England note..bears the legend, 'I Promise to pay the Bearer on Demand the sum of One Pound' ..signed, 'For the Govr'. and Compa. of the Bank of England' by the Chief Cashier.


Company (< ME compaignie < AF compainie = OF compa(i)gnie) άǤȲ᤹뤳Ȥ˰ϤʤŪˤϥ󥰥ɤ˶ԶȤ⤿餷ꥢȤδϢǡꥢƱ compagnia αƶǧƤ褤⤷ʤPraz (35) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Banking, as is well known, was first introduced into England by Italians; first by Sienese, then, after the middle of the thirteenth century, by Florentine merchants; Venice appeared on the scene at the beginning of the fourteenth century. Italian merchants were protected by Wolsey and Thomas Cromwell; they began to lose ground only during the age of Elizabeth. . . . The abbreviation Comp:a on the Bank of England notes is nothing else but a faint echo of the vanished glory of many an Italian Compagnia or firm.


#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1]) κǸ˿줿̤ꡤޥ󥹽줫μѤ¿ϡե󥹸ͳʤɤƥե󥹸첽֤DZѸäƤ뤳Ȥ¿äμѲϼȤƷ֤򻲾ȤʤõΤ˸ؤФ츻ؤ︦ˤƤϷְʳιܤˤդʧȡƶƼ¤˭Ǥ롥

Praz, Mario. "The Italian Element in English." Essays and Studies 15 (1929): 20--66.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-22-1]

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2013-07-04 Thu

#1529. ʤϸŪݼŪʤΤ (3) [gender_difference][sociolinguistics][age_grading][covert_prestige][slang][double_negative]

#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1])#1364. ʤϸŪݼŪʤΤ ([2013-01-20-1])#1496. ʤϸŪݼŪʤΤ (2) ([2013-06-01-1]) ˰³Τۤɸ򹥤෹ (The Sex/Prestige Pattern) 򼨤ˤĤơ
εǸڤΤۤˡRomain (87) ϲˤҶ¸ߤƤΤǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

Another factor seldom considered is the effect of children, with respect both to employment patterns as well as to language use in families. The Dutch study found that when a couple had children, both parents used more standard language. One of the reasons why women may adopt a more prestigious variety of language is to increase their children's social and educational prospects.


ĤޤꡤοƤϡҶ˵Ūʸո򶵤褦Ȥ뤿ˡɸŪʸˡ¿Ѥ褦ˤʤ롤ȤǤ롥Ƥ˸¤ʤȤ¿μҲŪƤƤΤۤ˴ؤ뵡񤬰Ū¿Ȥϻ¤ǤꡤκơͽˤɸಽָȴϢƤΤǤϤʤȤ
ƤƤδ֤ΰҶؤδԤκˤĤƤϤƤȤơοƤǯءĤޤؤǯؤɸŪʸո򼨤ȤϹѻƤ롥դθ򤹤СԤϼҲŪ㤤Ѽ򹥤ȤȤϡͤɸŪѼ overt prestige ʸŪҡˤǧ뷹ΤФơ׽մ䤽μԤɸŪѼ covert prestige Ūҡˤǧ뷹Ȥư̲Ǥ롥üԸĿͤĹȤߤȡǯ𤬾夬ˤäơɸŪʸոؤȥեȤƤ椯 (age grading) ȤȤ
Ѹ줫ȤƤϡͤˤʤ¯ (slang) λѤ롤¿ (multiple negation) λѤʤɤĴ̤𤵤Ƥ롥㤨СʲϤ褽ƱƤȯμǤǤǤ롥Ȥ¯ŪɽϴޤޤƤ뤬٤κܤ줿졤pp. 94--95ˡ

(1)
An adolescent: Dude, yesterday I went to this store and, man, I couldn't find the shift I wanted anywhere, man, it sucked.
An adult: Yesterday, I went to the store. I couldn't find what I wanted. Gosh! I was frustrated.

(2)
An adolescent: What the fuck is up with you, dumb ass! I told you to take that shift out 3 times. Get your ass out there.
An adult: I told you to take the trash out 3 times now. What the hell are you doing? Get your ass in gear and get out there and empty the dumb thing.


Romaine ˤ Detroit ˤ¿ĴǤϡγ礬12аʲ73%1063%ФơͤǤ61%Ȥ졤p. 92ˡ
̤ͤˤϻҶ˵Ϥ򼨤ɬפȤҲŪʰϤäƤꡤˤɸŪѼλѤ򹵤褦ˤʤȤϡ´ˤäƤꡤϤ롥

Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.
󡡡ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2014-06-30-1]

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2013-07-03 Wed

#1528. ɤǡϼٰ [ancrene_wisse][indo-european]

#329. αȺ ([2010-03-22-1]) εǡˤ뱦̤ͥλۤˤĤƼ夲ѸˤƱ̮ȼѤƤ뤬13蘆줿ƻμ Ancrene Wisse (AW) ɤǤơκƻŪʰ̣Ť򤵤Ƥս˽вäβսϡܤǤ Cambridge, Corpus Christi College 402 fol. 57r19 -- r24 սꡤAW, Part 4 ΡͶǡפˤĤƤʸϤ˸롥Kubouchi and Ikegami Υѥ륨ǥѤʸѸդˡ

. . . ȝef ei seið wel oðer deð wel ; ne mahen ha nanes/weis
lokin þider wið riht ehe of god heorte . ah winkið o þ+
half & bihaldeð o luft ȝef þer is eawt to edwiten . oðer lad/liche
þiderward schuleð mið eiðer . Hwen ha ihereð þ+ god ;
skleatteð þe earen adun . ah þe luft aȝein þ+ uuel ; is eauer
wid open . . . .

. . . if anyone says well or does well, they cannot ever look thither with the right eye of good heart, but wink in that eye and see in the left if there is anything to criticise, or squint evilly thither with either. When they here anything good, they flop the ears down, but the left ear is ever wide open towards the evil.


ͤ˫ƤΤʹȡܤǤϤǧ뤬ܤǤϵդˤõ򤷤褦Ȥ밭Ԥ롥Τ褦ʼԤϡξդʤ顤¤ϺǤϰ˼򷹤ƤΤȤ
Ǥϡriht ehe (right eye) ˡܡפȡֱܡפξݤƤꡤФ (þe) luft (the left (eye/ear)) ϡּٿפȤƤ롥
ʸؤǤϡȺΩϡ¯ҤʤɤνŪȿطƤȤ롥ź̤ͥȹͤʸ¿²ʸϤŵ1ĤǤ롥ޤĻꤤǤϡ¦Ļ٤жȤ줿ꥹޤǤϺ¦˰͡¦ͤ롥ΰѤ⥭ꥹȶ˴ŤƻʸϤŪʽŪȥȥåȤƤκΩߤȤ߹蘆ƤȤ

Kubouchi, Tadao and Keiko Ikegami, eds. The Ancrene Wisse : A Four-Manuscript Parallel Text, Preface and Parts 1--4. Studies in English Medieval Language and Literature 7. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2003.

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2013-07-02 Tue

#1527. ͥƥ֤Ƭ for- [prefix]

#526. Chaucer ѤѸ --- Ƭ for- ư ([2010-10-05-1]) Ǥ夲ƬꡥѸǤŪǤϤʤĤƤϤ˱ɤƬȤ for- 롥Ƭộ󤹤ȡػߡ䡤ӽꡤ̵롤ꡤΥȿάԡƶƤζĴǤ롥ǡͥƥƬȤäƤ褤
Ѹ줫󤲤Ƥߤȡforbear (control oneself), forbearance (patience), forbid (prohibit), forbruise (bruise sorely), fordo (do away with), forget (be unable to remember), forgive (pardon), forgo (do without), forlorn (lonely), forpined (pined away), forsake (leave), forsay (prohibit), forspent (worn out), forswear (give up), forweary (weary extremely), forworn (worn out) ʤɤ󤬤롥Web3 ˤȡƬ for- ϼΤ褦Ƥ롥

for- prefix [ME, fr. OE; akin to OHG fir-, far-, fur- for-, OS for-, Goth fra-, fair-, for-, faur- for-, fore-, OE for] 1 : so as to involve prohibition, exclusion, omission, failure, or refusal --- almost exclusively in words coined before 1600 <forsay> <forheed> 2 : destructively or detrimentally --- almost exclusively in words coined before 1600 <forhang> <forstorm> 3 : completely : excessively : to exhaustion : to pieces --- almost exclusively in words coined before 1600 <forbruise> <forweary> <forspent>


ɥĸ ver- ޤᥲޥ˹ŤƬǤꡤűѸǤϾʤʤBosworth-Toller Dictionary ˤȡΥڡ ˤƬΥȥ꡼롥θ񤭽Фȡforbeodan (to forbid), fordeman (to condemn), forcuþ (perverse, corrupt), fordon (to destroy, to do for), for-eaðe (very easily), for-oft (very often), forseon (to overlook, despise) ʤɤ󤬤롥
ƬΤϤȤ櫓ѸˤƤǤ롥MED for- (pref.(1)) ˤϡ¿θ㤬󤲤Ƥ롥ե٥åȽ˺Ƹȡforbannen (banish), forberen (bear, endure, refrain, avoid), forbien (redeem, bribe), forbinden (tie up), forbleden (bleed hard or to death), forbod (prohibition), forbreiden (corrupt, pervert), forbreken (break up, shatter), forcold (very cold), forcouth (infamous, wicked, vile, miserable), fordemen (condemn, convict), forderked (dimmed, obscured), fordon (ruin, destroy, condemn, frustrate, prevent, abrogate, violate), fordreden (fear greatly), fordrenchen (intoxicate, drown), fordrien (dry up, wither), fordronken (given to drunkenness), fordulle(d) (very dull), forfaren (go astray, perish, ruin), forfered (terrified), forhelen (conceal), forhiden (conceal), forhongred (ravenous, starving), forhouen (despise, scorn), forleden (mislead), forleten (forsake, give up, neglect, lose), forlien (fornicate, ravish, commit adultery), forlived (decrepit), forwandred (exhausted from wandering), forwepen (weep hard or long), forwered (worn out), forweri(ed) (very weary), forwerpen (cast out, banish, reject, renounce), forwird (perdition, destruction), forwondred (amazed), forworthen (degenerate, spoil, perish), forwounden (wound, injure), foryeten (forget, neglect, omit), foryeven (forgive, give up, bestow, grant) Ȥʤ롥
¿Ѹ˻ĤäƤ顤͸ for- ʤɤȤΤƤ⤷ʤ

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2013-07-01 Mon

#1526. Ѹܸθûоɽ [word_formation][japanese][timeline][lexicology][loan_word][borrowing][compounding][affix][buddhism]

ʲˡѸܸθûˡˤоȤǤ褦ɽ줾λˤäħվ񤭤ˤΤǤ롥#1524. Ѹˤλʬ ([2013-06-29-1]) ȡ#1525. ܸˤλʬ ([2013-06-30-1]) Ǥ줾θλʬ򼨤ξԤ줤˽Ťʤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡɽǤϤ褽ζʬDz¤ӤˤѸ¦Ǥŵ򻲾Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤ¿ܥ֥Ǥ͡ʷǿƤΤǡɸ䥫ƥ꡼ѤƴϢ뵭ˤɤĤȤǤϤǤ롥Ȥ櫓ѸθˤĤƤϡ#883. Algeo ο쥽ʬ (1) ([2011-09-27-1]) 濴ȤƵǺ٤äƤΤǡ׻ȡܸ¦ϡإ꡼ܸ2ûˡ (p. 7) θûǯɽ˵ä

Old English* Germanic vocabulary¸ʤޤȤȤСˤʬ᤿
* monosyllabic bases2줬ܡ
* derivation and compoundingȤθήǴ줬Ѥ줿㡧㡡㡡ʤʤʩȤȤ줿ȤФˤϡ´̡ספΤ褦ʸ奤ɸ᥵󥹥åȸˤޤޤƤ롥
* Christianity-related vocabulary from Latin (some via Celtic)줬ڤ㡧ʤʤˡ©ʤˡǰڡʤˤˡܡʤȤߡˤ
* few Celtic wordsʸȴʸɸȤʸξΩ롥㡧ߥˡҸߤˡӢҥˡʷɸˡӢʷɸ
Middle English* Old Norse loanwords including basic wordsʣˤäơƻ줬¤줿
* a great influx of French words줬̲
* an influx of Latin technical wordsŸ졦θ졦˼ʤɡ꺹ˤĤƤǧ¸ߤ
Modern English* a great influx of Latin loanwordsαΤײɤळȤФ㡧ʤɤˡػҡʤˡġʤդȤˡƬʤޤ¤夦
* Greek loanwords directlyꥹȶ붵դ衤ޤ̾طʤɤˤꡤݥȥ줬Ѥ줿㡧ѥ󡡥륿ܥ󡡥åѡҹ籩
* loanwords from various languages줬̲˿Ʃ
* Shakespeare's vocabularyؤʬ˱Ƹäΰ꺹ޤä
* scientific vocabularyؤȤδطǥ줬Ѥ줿㡧륳롡᥹åס
Present-Day English* shorteningȤơ¤줬޷ä롥㡧ůءҡŴƻ̱
* many Japanese loanwordsƸɮƬȤơե󥹸졤ɥĸ졤ꥢʤɤγ줬ä롥
* compounding revivedĹʣάά줬¿Ѥ롥
* loanwords decreased 


ξȤ˼ѤȤʤǸä˭ˤƤȤ狼ʸˤȸμѤˤϾ̩ܤʴطˤ뤬Ѹܸθû˰ʾˤΤȤǡ¤˼ΤϤޤʤ෿ŪˤŪˤΥ줿ξ줬ûˤˤ¿ζäƤ뤳ȤõƤ

ȡƣ Ⱦ 졤ƣ 㲡إ꡼ܸ2ûˡ١ȽŹ2009ǯ

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