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֥ʸפȾΤ볰ϡФܸȤȤʤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤#1617. ܸˤ볰 ([2013-09-30-1])#1630. 졤ʸ졤ץ ([2013-10-13-1])#1999. Chuo Online ε֥ʸΩŪ˻ס ([2014-10-17-1]) ʤɤˤƤ
#1617εǿ줿褦ˡȤ櫓ֹԤβʡ˴ؤ빭εϡɤǤ뤪ǯθɽѤ뤳Ȥ貿ڤˤʤФʤʤϤפˤ⤫餺줬¿ѤƤ븽¤Ȥ뤳Ȥ¿֤ǯθɽפȤϡ䤹¸ǤθɽǤȤ뤤ϾʤȤ̤դʤɤεΤȤİƤҲŪʴä solidarity Ϣӡˤδȡ⤦ο꤬ꤽȤȤʬ롥 (190) ϡϢӡפ֤ȤƤΡӽפˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ܤΤꤳȤФ˥ʸѤΤϤ줬狼ʤԤʤɤӽ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ʸ줬ʤΤϡ̣狼ʤȤǤϤʤϢӤӽι¤Ҳ˺ФƤޤȤǤ롥
Ĥޤꡤ¿Τǯ꤬ʸΰ̣ǤʤȤ쥳ߥ˥ʾˡǯ꤬ΰ̣ǯĤȼҲŪˡϢӡפǤʤȤꡤäȸСӽפƤޤȤ꤬Ȥ
μҲŪϡǯȥʸ˸¤餺˼Ѹ줬ȤˤФ륢ѸθŪ (purism) ˤäơŪͭʤΤǤϤʤȻפ롥㤨СѸΡ֥(inkhorn_term) ˤƤ⡤ƥѸϡ̱̽ĶȤǸ쥳ߥ˥ª뤳ȤǤ뤬ʾˡƥμؤʤ̱̽δ֤ȤҲŪʴްդäªۤ⤷ʤ
ʼإХ륳ߥ˥ΤαѸس١ؽDz2015ǯ
20ζѸؤμήΤϡ¤ (structural linguistics)ʸˡ (generative_grammar)ǧθ (cognitive_linguistics) 3Ǥ롥˾塤νǸ졤ƬƤ줾٤Ƥˤϸߤ˶ʬ⤢뤬Ωʬ⤢롥ΤȤƤߤСߤ˰ۤʤѤäƤƤƤ褤
(60) ϡ20θ绰ѷפȾΤơ3Ĥδطʬ䤹Ƥ롥褽Τ褦ʹޤ
¤
Ū = arbitrary
ּҲŪ
Ǽ
ʸˡ ǧθ
ּΧŪ = autonomous
Ū ǽϡ ͭŪ = motivated
ɸκǽθ woman ʣ women ɽ魯 PC ŪֻǤ롥ɸŪֻǤϡwoman/women man/men ǤꡤäŪǤȤްդȼˡ٤եߥ˥ȤɽŪֻФȤаޤäߤǤפʱ¼ŵˤϸФȤƵäƤ뤬ۤȤɤαѱѼŵǤϸФΩƤƤʤ֤줿¤ήԸ졤ȤʤΤǤϡŪʲͤĤäƤʤ
Ʊͤˡhistory Ф herstory ⡤PC ˤǤϤȤΤۤ褯ΤƤ롥֥եߥ˥ȤδˡˡפؤϤ긽ߤαѱѼŵǤϰƤʤ
Hughes (183) θˤ˴ؤƲäƤ롥ξȤ⡤äꤳˤƤޤäΤǤ롥
Wimmin . . . attracted a lot of publicity in 1982--3 before going through the phases of satire and obsolescence prior to fading away. A similar feminist coinage was herstory, briefly institutionalized in the acronym "WITCH --- Women Inspired to Commit Herstory," in Robin Morgan's Sisterhood is Powerful (1970, p. 551). Jane Mills made this telling observation in her compendium Womanwords: "The rewriting or respeaking of history as herstory --- coined by some feminists in the 1970s --- is guaranteed to annoy most men, many women and almost all linguists" (1989, p. 118). Although the currency of herstory has declined, Elaine Showalter showed further creativity in her study Hystories: Hysterical Epidemics and the Modern Media (1997).
wimmin ˤĤơPC ˤδϡΰѤ˽Ҥ٤Ƥۤ˸٤ȤϤʤֻȴϢơ⤦³Ƥߤֻסʤ뤤ֻˤطʤˤͤϡƬ˽Ҥ٤褦ˡ<women> Ȥֻݱʤ <men> ϢۤƤޤŪ˱ƧǤ (eye rhyme) Ǥ롥ξη̣֡ŪʤĤʤϡ̵뤷ʤۤɤǤ롥
Ȥȯ̤äȯȤƤϡष /mɛn/ /ˈwɪmɪn/ DZƧޤʤĤޤꡤȯ¤ɸ褦ֻѤСξδطˤ뤳ȤǤ롤ȤȤˤʤ롥ȯֻЪΥ (spelling_pronunciation_gap) ϱѸˤ밭̾⤤ħ<wimmin> Ϥޤˤħռ˼ä pronunciation_spelling εˡ̤ʤΤǤ롥
ѸֻηϤδˤɽ (phonography) Ȥɽ (morphography) ˤ뤳Ȥϡ#1332. ѸȶѸֻηϤܼŪʺ ([2012-12-19-1])#1386. Ѹʹߤ˳ΩƤɸֻηϤħ ([2013-02-11-1])#2043. Ѹֻɽַǡ ([2014-11-30-1]) ʤɤǸƤ̤Ǥ롥üŪˤСֻϲ̣ɽ魯ۤ˽֤Ȥˤ<wimmin> ؤֻפϡơmen Ȥΰ̣ϢۤǤĤΤˡΩȤƤɽŻäƤ롤ȤάȤäȤˤʤ롥ֻôɽǽɽǵǽȤʸΩPC ȤҲŪŪΤѤȤֻѤ1֤ȸäƤ褤PC ʤŪǺάŪѤƤͤݤˡ<wimmin> Ϥ⤷ƤƤ롥
women ȯֻˤĤƤϡ#223. woman ȯֻ ([2009-12-06-1])#224. women ȯֻ (2) ([2009-12-07-1])#246. ϡ֥פϡ ([2009-12-29-1])#247. ֥פ female ([2009-12-30-1]) ⻲ȡ
Hughes, Geoffrey. Political Correctness: A History of Semantics and Culture. Malden, ML: Wiley Blackwell, 2010.
#2827. PC ˡ ([2017-01-22-1])#2832. PC ðۤ ([2017-01-27-1]) ˴Ϣơpolitical_correctness ȤҲؾαưˤĤơϡȾۤɤФ PC ֤ΤʤǤɤΤ褦Ѽ礷ƤHughes ˽äƹͤƤߤ
3ۤɻŦǤ褦˻פ롥1ĤϡPC ĤʳФƼҲ˼ƤƤȤǤ롥PC Ϥ륤ǥä⽸ĤѤϤ줬⽸ĤγؤäƤҲŪǧΤ褦ˤʤä㤨С"political correctness" ʤɤΥɤ켫ΤΤϤ뤳ȤˤʤäˡȽŪȿȤ櫓ѥǥʤɤηΩĤ褦ˤʤäƤˡȿŪȿȤơ "politically incorrect language" Ѥ "shock jocks" "rappers" Τ褦¸ߤ⸽ƤΤ褦ˡPC ϼƤγŪȿȤʳФʤĹƤ⤷ΤŪȿΩĤ褦ˤʤäȤϤPC 켫ΤϷ褷ƼƤʤȤHughes (283) ϡ"Although discredited and mocked, it refuses to go away but appears in new guises." ȽҤ١ "the paradox of political correctness" ȸƤǤ롥
2ܤˡPC ήԤ˾ˤĤ졤Сΰ褬ȻΤǤʤʤäƤȤȤ롥俦̾ʤɤ˻ϤޤäȤǤϳưʪθĶ˴ؤޤǡ PC Ȥ褦ˤʤäHughes (284) Ƥ PC оݤȤʤʬΥꥹȤˤС"fatness, appearance, stupidity, diet, crime, prostitution, race, homosexuality, disability, animal rights, the environment, and still others" ޤޤƤ롥̤θС٤ưΥ֡ (taboo) ΰ褬٤Ƴ礷ƤȤȤPC Ȥϡ1ĤθˤС֡ΰγäΤǤ롪
3ܤˡPC ξPC ѸΤỊ̇ŪŪ¦̤⡤ïïФơġɤΤ褦ʾǤѤ뤫ȤƥȤƤ褦ˤʤäƤHughes (286) ۩"political correctness has increasingly become less absolute and more contextual, that is to say the emphasis is increasingly less on what is said, but more on who said it and when." 㤨СͤͤؤΤŪѸȤΤȡͤؤΤƱѸȤΤȤǤϡθ̤Ϥޤäۤʤ롥Ѹ줽ΤΤǤϤʤŪ꤬ռ褦ˤʤäƤȤȤ
Τ褦ˡPC ȤϼҲȤȤĹƤǰǤ롥
Hughes, Geoffrey. Political Correctness: A History of Semantics and Culture. Malden, ML: Wiley Blackwell, 2010.
#2827. PC ˡ ([2017-01-22-1]) εǡǯμҲؾΰ籿ưȤƤ political_correctness ư˿줿Ūʰ̣Ǹ (orthodoxy) ܻؤưĥϡѸˤǤ֤ⷫƤ PC ˤϲݤˤϸʤäðۤ3ĤȤHughes (7) ꡤŦսѤ褦
There are three characteristics which make political correctness a unique sociolinguistic phenomenon. Unlike previous forms of orthodoxy, both religious and political, it is not imposed by some recognized authority like the Papacy, the Politburo, or the Crown, but is a form of semantic engineering and censorship not derivable from one recognized or definable source, but a variety. There is no specific ideology, although it focuses on certain inequalities and disadvantaged people in society and on correcting prejudicial attitudes, more especially on the demeaning words which express them. Politically correct language is the product and formation of a militant minority which remains mysteriously unlocatable. It is not the spontaneous creation of the speech community, least of all any particular deprived sector of it. Disadvantaged groups, such as the deaf, the blind, or the crippled (to use the traditional vocabulary), do not speak for themselves, but are championed by other influential public voices.
С(1) PC θҤˤäƲĤΤǤϤʤ͡ʸọ̇ܤ1֤Ǥ뤳ȡ(2) иȤϤߤϤˤ衤ΥǥȴطŤΤǤϤʤȡ(3) ΤˡֵפΤĤʤɤƮΤˤΤǤ뤳ȡȤʤˤޤȤƤޤСPC ϡҲŪҤϰäƤʤиȤľɤν껺ȤȤˤʤ롥
߿ʹǤ PC Τθ̡̡ʤɤŬڤɾ뤳ȤΤ褦ˤ̣ðۤʽĤαưαư¸ߴƤȤ¤õƤ
Hughes, Geoffrey. Political Correctness: A History of Semantics and Culture. Malden, ML: Wiley Blackwell, 2010.
#2674. Ūʸ3Ĥħ ([2016-08-22-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡʸˤϡĥĽʸ (constative) ȡξ˹٤ȼʸ (performative) 2ब롥ͤ褦ˤäƤϡĽʸĽҡפȤȯù (speech_act) ԤʤΤǤΤ顤1οʸǤȤʸˤϡΡֿԡפưľɽ魯Ūʸ (ex. I command you to surrender immediately.) ȡǤʤżŪʸ (ex. Surrender immediately.) 뤳ȤͤС㤨 You're a stupid cow. Τ褦̾ĽʸϡʸƬ I hereby insult you that . . . ʤɤä٤ĽҡפȤԤɽ魯żŪʸʤΤȵǤ뤫⤷ʤΤ褦ˡĽʸϼ¤ϿʸǤꡤʸƬˡI hereby + ư (performative verb) פʤɤƤΤȲ᤹벾performative hypothesis ȸƤǤ롥
βϹϼƤʤȤƵ I hereby insult you that you're a stupid cow. ȤʸͤƤߤ褦ʸỤ̄Ūˤʤ̾ȯäȤƤϤʤԼǤ롥Ūˤʸε餢롥ˡŪ˱ƤȤʬοư줬ֱĤ (lie) ֶ (threaten) ʤɤʸƤߤȤɤޤޤʸΤԼΩäƤ롥ˡƤư줬ʹ꤬ΤꤹˡϤΤȤ⤢롥
β1970ǯ줿1980ǯʹߡ̣줾Ω줫꤬Ŧ졤ȽƤǤ˲βȸäƤ褤Ȼפ뤬Ƭ˵̿פʤɡοư˴ؤƤϡʷŪȤƻȤΤ⤷ʤʾ塤Huang (97--98) ȤƼɮ
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
ϢθˤäƤ뤬Ͻ˸츻ä carnage θ캬פ̣ƥ캬 carn-, carō ̤뤳Ȥϴ˽Ҥ٤˰캬ޤ̤ȡ*(s)ker- ˤɤ夯#2477. Ѹˤߤ20ˡλ ([2016-02-07-1]) ε score Ȥ˴Ϣƾ줿 *(s)ker- ϡڤ (to cut) Ȥ롥̣ΤĤʤϡڤʬ줿פۤɤε ([2017-01-24-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡcarnage ֻ٤פΡ٤פˤϡ֤ФФڤäƤפΰ̣뤳Ȥˤαդ
캬ΰ̣ŪǤ뤫顤θ캬ͥåȥϤǤ롥츻ŵĴ٤ƤߤȡΤ褦ʱñ췲ŪƱ캬Ȥʤ롥
űѸͳscurf, shard, share, sharp, shear, shirt, short, shred, shroud, shrub
ťΥɸͳscar, score, scrap, scrape, scree, skerry, skirt
ƥͳcarnage, carnal, carnation, carnival, carnivorous, carrion, cenacle, charnel, coriaceous, cork, cortex, crone, cuirass, currier, curt, curtal, incarnate, kirtle
ꥷͳcoreopsis, corm
ƥꥷϤˤʸ¿ޤॲޥϤΤΤŪʸ¿
ܥӥΤˡΤ褦ʡָ캬ͥåȥץ¾εȤơ#695. 캬 fer ([2011-03-23-1]), #1043. mind θ캬ͥåȥ ([2012-03-05-1]), #1124. Ϥ礦ͤ⸬ʿʹ֡ ([2012-05-25-1])#1557. mickle, much θ캬ͥåȥ ([2013-08-01-1])#1602. star θ캬ͥåȥ ([2013-09-15-1])#1639. Ѹ name ȥꥷ onoma (1) ([2013-10-22-1])#1708. *wer- θ캬ͥåȥ weird θ츻 ([2013-12-30-1]) ɤ
³ԡȥΤ carnage ȤʸդȤäȤˤĤơϤǥͯƤ褦Ǥ롥
20νǤˤĤơ22īʹīǡʸȲ⤬դƤ "This American carnage stops right here and stops right now." Τβˡä
carnageפϡֻ٤θλפȤạ̈ǡֻߡפ˶ᤤʤɤɽ˻ȤˤƶաȥľԻϺ䡤Ⱥᡦ̢˿졤ỴʾˤƹפαħդȤơƥǥܤƤ롥
ΡֻߡפȤȲϡͥƤȻפ¼ŵˤ°̤Ρֻ٤פȤǤϤʤֻߡפ˶ᤤȲᤷ餷
εǰ OED Ǥθ 3a Ȥ̤θ 2a ˡΤ褦롥"Carcases collectively: a heap of dead bodies, esp. of men slain in battle. ? Obs."ֻ٤פȤϡη̤ȤƤΡֻߡפǤ롥Ʊ褦ˡJohnson μǤ⤳θ "Heaps of flesh" ȤƤ롥carnage εǻŦ褦˥ƥǡפ̣ carn-, carō Ǥ뤳ȤͤСľŪʰ̣ȯãȤƤϡ٤ȤƤΡֻ٤פǤϤʤֻΡʤνˡפؤȤΤǤ롥ѸǤνǯ夳ֻ٤פθǤ1600ǯֻΡʤνˡפθǤ1667ǯ ("Milton Paradise Lost x. 268 Such a sent I [sc. Death] draw Of carnage, prey innumerable.") ȡԤΤۤᤤ̣ȯãμνͤȡ̴طֲ̡עְפȤɤäȥ˥ߡ (metonymy) ȤơֻΡʤνˡעֻ٤פΤ褦ѲΤǤϤʤ롥ȤƤʤСȥΤ carnage ϡֻפȤư줬ߴλȤѤ줿Τ褦ʡִλ̡פΰ̣ʤֻ٤ξ֡סֻߡפ̣ΤªΤŬڤȤʤ롥ʤȤ⡤ȥΡʤ뤤ϡΰդȤ31Фμ㤭ԡ饤 Stephen MillerˤϡΡֻ٤פǤʤη̤ȤƤΡֻߡפθؼĴäϤǤ롥
ʤ٤פȤˤĤƤСϡ֤ФФڤäƤŨĹʤǤޤͤĹʤǻˤ롥פ̣롥δϡƱ֥ꥯפȤɤߤΡҭפƤơϤ碌פΰ̣äƤꡤְķפƱΡ٤϶פʤͻϸ⤢롥Ρ٤פǤФ褤ΤøԤ
ΥȥΤνǤˤĤơ¿ΥǥɾƤ롥Ѹ켫ΤѤ餺Ρ֥ȥˡפʬ䤹ΤϳΤå٥դǤȤʡ#2825. ֥ȥˡס ([2017-01-20-1]) ȡˡޤꥫΤαϰ̤˳Ĵ⤯ۤdzƤȤʤΤαˤϡؤȽˤޤŪǤ¿Ȥ
Τ褦ŪʴްդǤľŪ˴ΤAmerican carnage ȤɽȾǡ"This American carnage stops right here and stops right now." ȽҤ٤Ƥ (see Inaugural address: Trump's full speech --- CNNPolitics.com)
carnage Ȥϡֻ٤ʽŪˡ̤λΡפ̣ʸŪʸǤ롥OALD7 ˤȡ"the violent killing of a large number of people" Ȥ롥ޤOED Ǥ " The slaughter of a great number, esp. of men; butchery, massacre." Ȥ롥ˤ趯ʴްդĸǤ롥Ѹ줫Ƥߤ褦
The scene of carnage was indescribable.
They hoped never to repeat the carnage of the First World War.
Years of violence and carnage have left the country in ruins.
carnage θˤҤȤƤߤ褦OED ˤȽФ1600ǯΤȤǡ"1600 P. Holland tr. Livy Rom. Hist. ii. 16 The carnage and execution was no lesse after the conflict than during the fight." ȤƽФ롥Philemon Holland (1552--1637) Ѥ褦ʹߤλѤϵǡ18ȾˤʤäƤ褦䤯ŪѤ褦ˤʤä
16Υե carnage Ȥ줬ǧ졤줬ѸäΤȸ뤬Υեñ켫Τϥꥢ carnaggio μѤǤ롥ΤȤǤˡֻ٤פθϤä褦ΥꥢñϤ˸ƥ carnāticum μѤǤꡤʳǤθ "flesh-meat, also, the flesh-meat supplied by tenants to their feudal lords" ä캬ȤƤϡפ̣ƥ carn-, carō ̤롥
ťեˤбȤ charnage Ȥ줬ǧ졤ˤϱѸƱƬҲ carnage ⤢äѸǤϸԤľܤμѤǤϤʤ褦եʥΥޥ˥եλҲб <ch> = /tʃ/ vs <c> = /k/ ˤĤƤϡ#95. ޤ롪 Norman French Central French Ÿ ([2009-07-31-1]) ȡˡ
Ϥ䡤ޤǥꥫܤФΤԤꤿ
Ūʻ Hughes ˤ Political Correctness θɤ political_correctness ȤäƤ⡤ϤƤʤΰʤҲؾǤ뤳ȤǤŪʰ̣Ǥ PC ˤϤޤǯʤʥϤ餯äȸŤˤޤ̤뤳ȤǤȤΤϡPC ̤μҲŪǤ taboo, euphemism, politeness ȤطϤĤλǤ⡤ɤʸˤ⤢äȹͤ뤫
20ȾФϤޤäŪ PC ⡤ۤĹʤˤΤʤǡκߤʤ餺ѤƤHughes (3--4) ϡΥȥǡPC ǯ֤ PC θ̤ˤĤơΤ褦Ƥ롥
Linguistically it started as a basically idealistic, decent-minded, but slightly Puritanical intervention to sanitize the language by suppressing some of its uglier prejudicial features, thereby undoing some past injustices or "leveling of the playing fields" with the hope of improving social relations. It is now increasingly evident in two opposing ways. The first is the expanding currency of various key words . . . , some of a programmatic nature, such as diversity, organic, and multiculturalism. Contrariwise, it has also manifested itself in speech codes which suppress prejudicial language, disguising or avoiding certain old and new taboo topics. Most recently it has appeared in behavioral prohibitions concerning the environment and violations of animal rights. As a result of these transitions it has become a misnomer, being concerned with neither politics nor correctness as those terms are generally understood. / Political correctness inculcates a sense of obligation or conformity in areas which should be (or are) matters of choice. Nevertheless, it has had a major influence on what is regarded as "acceptable" or "appropriate" in language, ideas, behavioral norms, and values. But "doing the right thing" is, of course, an oversimplification. There is an antithesis at the core of political correctness, since it is liberal in its aims but often illiberal in its practices: hence it generates contradictions like positive discrimination and liberal orthodoxy.
PC ϤȤȤϽʺűѤۼȯưäHughes ϡη̤Ȥơ(1) diversity ¾βͤ魯ɤ˹ޤäȡ(2) ֡Ȥնɽ͡ΰ˳礷ƤäȡƤ롥Ԥ˴ؤƤϡޤΰ褬礷ơϤΰ̣ǤΡפˤָפˤľܴطʤΤޤǤ⤬PC ȤŪѸΤȤ˴ޤ褦ˤʤäƤޤäۤɤǤ롥
ѤθȾλŦ̣ĹǤ롥νȯäʺűѤλۤPC βĤơ"positive discrimination" (or "affirmative action") "liberal orthodoxy" ãƤޤäȤ̷ΤȤۤȤƤμͳ¤ȤƤ«˻äƤޤäȤˤʤ롥
ϳΤǤꡤPC Фͳ⤳ˤΤȻפΤ褦ŪɾäǤԽʬ餯 PC ȤưΤΤͳ«ξ¦̤ǽ餫ƤΤǤ롥ǯ֤ PC ư̤ơλ¤⤭ĦˤʤäƤȲᤷ
ˤ衤PC 20Ⱦ21Ƭ˻ޤŸƤҲؾΰࡼ֥ȤǤ롥
Hughes, Geoffrey. Political Correctness: A History of Semantics and Culture. Malden, ML: Wiley Blackwell, 2010.
120դǡָѸѸˤλͤꤹϢܵϤޤǯҤǤ줿رѸΡ֤ʤפ롡ϤƤαѸˡδϢȤƤϢܴƤǤȤϢޤĤġƤˤĤƤŪƤ椯ͽǤ˰٤ΥڡȤʤޤܥ֥ȤȤˤꤤޤ
ơϡ֤ȤФ̻Ūˤߤ פȤϡ Ǥ2.1.3 ֶŪ̻ŪפǼ夲ܤʬ䤹겼ޤȤơ3.2ǰä֤ʤ *foots, *childs ǤϤʤ feet, children ʤΤפȤԵ§ʣפλƤޤŪǤϤʤ̻ŪʻįƤߤȡѤΤȤȤƼĥƤޤ
̻ (diachrony) ȶ (synchrony) ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ⤤ȹͤƤޤεˤȤ櫓ϢˤĤƤεɤ
Ϣơ#2764. رѸΡ֤ʤפ롡ϤƤαѸˡ٤Ǥޤ ([2016-11-20-1]) #2806. رѸΡ֤ʤפ롡ϤƤαѸˡ٤δϢ ([2017-01-01-1]) ε⤴Ȥ
褤 Donald John Trump 45奢ꥫΤ˽Ǥcf. #2656. 奢ꥫΤǤΰ ([2016-08-04-1])ˡ
ȥäѸˤĤƤϡ̤͡ɾʤƤ2118俷ʹī6̤ˤ֥ȥˡפ˴ؤ뵭äǯ3θԤˡˤȡȥʸˡ6ǯ٥ǡҥȥ7ǯ٥äȤǶ plain spoken αѸ줬ͭԤ˼ȤȤǡ䥱ͥǥγĴ⤤ϤǤ˲ΤΤȤʤäΤ褦
ǧθؤ George Lakoff ˤȡȥΤΥĥåȯʬϤȡĥ䤹ؤŪѤĤݼؤǤ뤳ȤʬȤˡȤ¦̤Ǹȡ(1) ϤʤĤ롤(2) üʪ(3) Τؤ(4) ¬Ȥ롤ȤħȤΥȥåϤտŪǤꡤ̱ޥߤ⤽μ˾äƤޤäƤʬϤ롥(1) ϡΤʤȤȤäʤ뷹뤳Ȥؤ(2) ˤĤƤϡľܤ鷺Ȥ⡤ݼؤˤǤ뤳ȤǼ롤 implicature άŪѤĹƤȤ(4) ϡȿˤ뤿ˡ֥ᥭȤιɤä˥ᥭۺѤפʤɤȤ֤夲뤳Ȥʤɤ롥
Τ褦ʥȥˡϡ٥ؤ鸫ϼȥåȤȤˤʤ뤬ݼؤˤϸ̤Τ褦
⡤ƤĥåǤ register style ۤʤꡤ˱ƥȥåޤάۤʤäƤΤȤ˥ǥʤ¤ϤѤƤȥʬϤϡνǤʹߤ⡤ޤޤܤƤȤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
ΤȤˤʤ뤬2013ǯ212 The Guardian ꡤꥫΤΥԡ٥Ѳ˴ؤơThe state of our union is . . . dumber: How the linguistic standard of the presidential address has declined Υǡ⻲ȡ
[2017-01-16-1]ε˰³my pleasure ȤɽˤĤơOED ˤȡThank you. ؤαȤƤ (it is) my pleasure νФ1950ǯȤꡤˡǤ뤳Ȥʬ롥Ȥʤˡϰ餢äpleasure my ʤɤνͭʤȤȤѤȡ?ΰջ֡˾ߡ ("that which is agreeable to or in conformity with the wish or will of the person specified; will, desire, choice.") ΰդȤʤꡤ15꼡Τ褦㤬롥
1485 Caxton tr. Lyf St. Wenefryde 2 Whiche..aroos & humbly demaunded hym what was his playsir.
a1500 (c1370) Chaucer Complaint to his Lady 120 With right buxom herte hooly I preye, As your moste plesure, so doth by me.
MED ǤСplēsīr(e (n.) 1(d) θ롥θϸǤ I'd go out and dance the hootchie-kootchie buck naked if that was her pleasure and mine. Τ褦ʸ˸졤Ǥ롥θפȤơɸβäˤŪɽѸȯãΤθȴϢȤƤϡat one's pleasure, to one's pleasure ʤɤѸȤƤ
ɸΡ֤ɤޤơפˡۤɿϤʤФФȤƤΡִǡפ̣ With pleasure. ФϤʤ٤OED ǤϽФ1836ǯ Dickens ȤʤäƤ롥
1836 Dickens Pickwick Papers (1837) ii. 12 'Glass of wine, Sir?' 'With pleasure,' said Mr. Pickwick---and the stranger took wine; first with him..and then with the whole party together.
My pleasure. ˤ With pleasure. ˤ衤pleasure Ȥޤ礬ŪǶˤʤäơΥݥ饤ȥͥ (politeness) ްդĤĸѲȤȤˤʤ롥ư please ͳ褹ݥ饤ȥͥɸƱδ줬Ѹʹߤȯã¤ȹ碌ơpleasure դϤδָ֡ѤŤƤפȸplease ȯãˤĤƤϡ#2644. I pray you/thee please ء ([2016-07-23-1]) ȡ
ɸˤĤơ#286. homonymy, homophony, homography, polysemy ([2010-02-07-1])#815. polysemic clash? ([2011-07-21-1])#1801. homonymy polysemy ζ ([2014-04-02-1])#2174. ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2015-04-10-1]) ʤɤǰäƤϤ⤦2ĤƱ۵ (homonymy) ¿ (polysemy) ζۣˤĤƲƹͤƤߤ
̣γ路 Saeed (65) Ѹ줫 sole gay θƤ롥sole ˤϡ̾Ȥ "bottom of the foot" ˤ "flatfish" ʥ쥤֡ˤ2Ĥθ롥ξ¿üԤˤȤäƸߤ˴طΤʤΤȤƤꡤäƱ۵ǧƤ롥Ūˤϥƥ solea "sandal" եͳDZѸäΤǤꡤƱǤ롥ΤˡƤߤСȤʿ٤ä֥פǤ롥ǤΰޤޤǤꡤ2ĤθФΩƤƤΤ⤢С1ĤθФΤȤ2ĤθʬƤΤ⤢롥ȤȡΩΤǤСڤϰξԤδط homonymy Ǥ⤢ polysemy Ǥ⤢ȷʤ
⤦1Ĥϡƻ gay Ǥ롥θˤ "homosexual" ƱΡˤ "lively, light-hearted, bright" ۵ʡˤȤ2Ĥμ礿̣롥ä˼㤤ˤȤäơξδϢϡäȤƤΤ˴褦ǡǤ homonymy δطˤİƤΤǤϤʤʤˤξߤ˴طȤȤ館Ƥͤ⤤뤫⤷ʤºݡ̻Ūˤϡ۵ʡפƱΡפؤΰ̣ѲΤȤƤ롥Ǥ⡤ͤˤȤäƤ homonymy̤οͤˤȤäƤ polysemy Ȥ롥븫 homonymy̤θ polysemy ȸƤ褤
ҴŪʰ̣δ顤δط뤳Ȥ϶ˤhomonymy polysemy ζˤĤơŪΤͳʬ
gay ˡˤĤƤϡAmerican Heritage Dictionary Usage Note gay ⻲ȡ
Saeed, John I. Semantics. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.
ֱѸ줬줫ƶפ뤤ϡֱѸ줬˱ƶͿפȤϡѸˤǤ褯Ȥ롥ֱѸפ͡ѼνΤǤꡤġ֡פ1˸ꤵ櫓ǤϤʤ̵θؤȹͤȡαƶط϶ˤʣʥͥåȥȤʤBaugh and Cable ˤȡΤ褦ʱƶط "cross-linguistic influence" (400) ȸƤФ롥μΤ¿ŪưŪǤ뤿ᡤޤ긦ʤǤʤ褦θä˸ؽǡ˽פʳǰȤʤäƤΤǤϤʤBaugh and Cable (400) ϡ줫ΰȤܤƤ롥
In projections of the future status of global languages, there has been little discussion of the reciprocal reinforcement that some of the major languages of the world give to each other---or what is known as "cross-linguistic influence." Spanish and Portuguese in Latin America, for example, indirectly boost the fortunes of English, or at least of English as a proficiently acquired foreign language, in comparison to languages that are less closely related to these Indo-European languages historically and typologically. Similarly, in the opposite direction there is a cross-linguistic influence of English on the learning of Spanish in the United States: knowledge of Spanish is diffused among many native English speakers in Texas in a way that Chinese in Northern California is not. One reason that research and discussion are lacking is that, until recently, most of the scholarship in foreign-language learning has concentrated on the differences between two languages rather than the similarities, with an emphasis on "interference."
դϡ2콬θȹ̣ǤαѸˡʤ뤤˼ҲѸءˤȤʤǽ⤤ۤˤ code-switching Ѥθʤɤθܿ䡤Ѹ춵εˤϢƤȻפ롥
Ѹˤ̾6ǤˤơBaugh and Cable Ǹ˶ᤤǾΤ褦 "cross-linguistic influence" ˸ڤƤ뤳ȤϼŪǤ롥Ѹˤϡ21οѸءʤ깭ֱѸγءסˤ٤롤ˤʤȤơפʥݥˤ롥
ΰѤˤƥꥫˤѸˤĤƤϡ#2610. ƥꥫϱѸѼ ([2016-06-19-1]) ȡ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
Thank you. ФƤϡYou are welcome., Don't mention it., Not at all., No problem., ʤ͡ʱФλadjacency_pair ȡˡѼʼά̡ˤäƤɤ줬դ路ϰۤʤ뤬ܸΡ֤ɤޤơפ롥ºݤˤϡܸǤϡ֤꤬ȤפФơ֤ɤޤơפ֤¿ʤ̵äꡤ֤פǺѤޤꤹ뤳Ȥ¿
ѸǤΤ⤦1ĤΤ褯Ȥ It's a pleasure. My pleasure. The pleasure is mine. Ȥɽ롥Ƥߤ褦
Thanks for doing that. --- It's a pleasure.
Thanks for coming. --- My pleasure.
It was so kind of you to give us a lift. --- Don't mention it - it was a pleasure.
褯褯ͤȡmy pleasure Ȥɽϡʤʤ̣襤No problem. ֤ɤޤơפۤɹǤϤʤYou are welcome. ۤѶŪǤʤʬ˰Ĥơֲ椬ӡפɽ뤢ꡤɤޤǡѸäȤˤ You are welcome. No problem. 餤ꥨʤääѶŪ My pleasure. ȤäƤȻפäǤ롥
ʤȤפäΤϡȾؤޡ٤˽Ρ֥֡ޥץ쥸㡼פΤפɤФǤ롥ʹΤäΥե졼뵡˻ȤäƤߤ褦ȻפΩäʤФƤޤäΤϡ֥楢ԡפäȤǤʥͥХ졤ߤޤˡ䡤ʹֹ
ʤpleasure /pˈlɛʒə/ Ȥȯȯãʣʤ褦14Ⱦ˥ե줫 plesir(e) /pleˈziːr;/ ȤƼѤ줿ѤܤޤǤ˻ʸǤ϶1ذܤ /ˈpleziːr/ Ȥʤäˡ1500ǯ˸ measure ʤɤˤĤ -ure Ȥʤꡤˤθ1첻ûơߤȯθΩȤ
Ϣơpleasure бư please please Υݥ饤ȥͥ (politeness) ˤĤơ#2644. I pray you/thee please ء ([2016-07-23-1]) Ȥ줿
ؤޡ١̼ҡ1998ǯ
ɸˤĤƤϡ#293. ٤¬뤫 ([2010-02-14-1]) #1839. ñ㲽Ȥϲ ([2014-05-10-1]) ʤɤǰäƤƼ夲Ƥߤ
ؤŪʸˤС٤ƤθʣǤꡤ٤ˤĤͭդʺϤʤȤƤطʤˤ20ι¤ؤȯŸꡤ˱ƶϤΤäŪŪʸοʲȤͤƤȤ⤢ä֤٤κʤȤ̿ꤽ켫ΤϡиŪ˼¾ڤ뤳ȤǤꡤϤˤʤΤʬʤΰ̣Ǥϡ̿ϤޤDzǤꡤäȤФοǰȤͤ롥
Baugh and Cable (400--01) ϡѸˤ̾6Ǥ "The Relative Difficulty of Languages" ꤹǡˤĤƼΤ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥
A popular and intrinsically interesting question---"Which languages are the most difficult to learn?"---was generally ignored by linguistic studies of the twentieth century beyond the claims that as a first language, all languages are of equal difficulty; and, obviously, as a second language, the degree of difficulty depends on the language the learner already knows. Until recently, the empirical evidence for assessing "difficulty" in language spread has been lacking. What has been called the the ALEC statement (All Languages are Equally Complex) or "the linguistic equi-complexity dogma" has its source in both structural linguistics reaching back to Edward Sapir and in the "universals" of Noam Chomsky's generative grammar. In a popular textbook of 1958, Charles F. Hockett crystallized an impression of languages that had been stated more cautiously by Sapir thirty years earlier, and which became the standard view for the rest of the twentieth century:
Objective measurement is difficult, but impressionistically it would seem that the total grammatical complexity of any language, counting both morphology and syntax, is about the same as that of any other. This is not surprising, since all languages have about equally complex jobs to do, and what is not done morphologically has to be done syntactically. [The Native American language] Fox, with a more complex morphology than English, thus ought to have a somewhat simpler syntax; and this is the case.
ʤǸڤƤ Hockett Hockett, Charles F. A Course in Modern Linguistics New York: 1958. (p. 180--81) ǤꡤSapir Sapir, Edward. Language: New York: 1921. (p. 219) Ǥ롥
Baugh and Cable ϤΰѤθǡ塤äͭѤȤʤ븦ʬȤơ2콬Τۤ1콬ȴϢإǥؤƤ롥
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
ε#2818. 蘆εǽ ([2017-01-13-1]) Ǽ夲ؤ蘆Ȥϲ٤ɤǤơؤήˤĤƹͤ뵡ä
ĤˤȡΤ蘆θϤ蘆ơʾˤˤ뷹ä㤨СŵŪʡ֤蘆θפˤȡ蘆ζή (Rumor) ϡԤФνפ (importance) ȤˤĤƤξڵۣ椵 (ambiguity) ȤѤ㤹롤Ĥޤ R?ia Ȥ (23) ۤˤͤ٤¦̤Ϥ롥㤨СΥǥȯ칭뤫ȤǥδιͻɬפĤϤΤ褦ˡ蘆ƤǤϤʤθ뤳Ȥ⤤Ƥ롥ǽҤ٤Ƥ뤳Ȥ⤷̱¯ؤˤ椬Ƭˤ뤢ޤꡤΤ蘆塽ǥޤࡽФƴؿפȤŦƤΤǤ (154)
Ҳ˴ؤǤ⡤19̱¯ؤˤϽդλषŻ뤵Ƥ顤ߤϤȰžƺƤӽդޤƼǥܤȤʤäƤΤȸ
Τ褦Ĭήϸؤˤˤ⸫뤳ȤǤ롥20μήɸؤϡоݤȤƤäѤäդŻ뤷¾ΥǥĤޤդڻ뤹ȯŸָƬˤ뤢ޤסȤФָФƴؿפäΤǤ롥Ȥ20Ⱦ21ˤƤϡҲؤʤɡǥ䥳ƥȤŻ뤹뷹ޤäƤؤˤϡषʸ (philology) ȸƤФнŤθ츦ΩƤ櫓顤ϤϤꤰȰžƺƤӳƼΥǥ˴ؿäƤȸ
žäƤȤäƤ⡤ȤƤϰऱ֤äƤȤȤǤꡤñʲؤβǤϤʤϤǤ롥21θؤϡä濴뤤ϡơ濴æơ¾ΥǥˤۤꤹȤạ̈ǤΡַŻؤɤڤäƤȸ
ϢơդμΩȤˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ#2339. դμΩ˴ؤ Vachek ε (1) ([2015-09-22-1])#2340. դμΩ˴ؤ Vachek ε (2) ([2015-09-23-1])#2431. դμΩ˴ؤ Bolinger ε ([2015-12-23-1])#2508. դμΩ˴ؤ Samuels ε ([2016-03-09-1]) ʤɤǵƤΤǡһȤ
ؤ蘆Ȥϲ١ҡӡ2014ǯ
ؤ蘆Ȥϲ٤ɤҲؤΥߥ˥ǥΩ줫Ρ蘆 (rumor) ʬϤҲŪʴؿäɤߥ˥صŪˡƻŪ (instrumental) ʤΤȼŪŪ (consummatory) ʤΤʬȡ蘆ϸԤΤۤܶᤷƤ롥Ŀͤ˴ؤ뤦蘆Ǥ르åפͤȡƤ˾ȤƤβͤ⤢ˤϤ뤬¿ξ硤åפ뤳ȼΤŪǤ롥͡ϥåפΤˤ虜虜ޤäꡤ磻ɥ硼ꤹΤǤ롥
(109--10) ǽҤ٤Ƥ뤬蘆ˤϡ֤äɡפȤ줬ĤȤ¿ϻͿԤδ֤˿̩ʿʹִطʤ solidarity ФŪʤǤꡤºݤˤ蘆Ƥ̩⤱Сsolidarity Ϥ˹ޤ롥
ޤ蘆γϡͿԤΡֵζͭפȤطʾġp. 110ˡҳˤ蘆ǥޤޤ䤹Τϡ͡Ʊ褦˴Ūʾˤ뤫Ǥꡤξ褹뤿ξͭȤ⤢뤬ʾˡ¤ä뤿ˤߤʤȰˤȤ롥蘆߽Ф solidarity ޤȤϸߤ˽Ĺ礦طˤ롥
(113--14) ϡåפ3Ĥεǽ˸ڤƤ롥ޤ־ǽפ롥åפΤΤͤˤĤƤξǤȤȤǤϤʤΥåפ鲿餫ζФˤϡŪʾȤˤʤ롥ˡֽĵϤηǧǽפ롥ͤϤ르åפ¾ͤȶͭ뤳ȤǿĤФꡤ«ꤹΤǤʤ accommodation_theory ȤϢ롥#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1]) ȡˡǸˡ֥ƥȤεǽפǤ롥ͤϲä¥ʺޤȤơñ˳ڤΤȤƥåפ롥
ʤ顤蘆䥴åפϸѤ (discourse) 1ĤǤ롥äơ嵭ΥåפεǽϡεǽΰǤ⤢Ϥοʹִط۵ǽȤȤǤСϢơ#1771. ܼŪʵǽ1ĤȤƤ phatic communion ([2014-03-03-1])#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1]) εȡ
ؤ蘆Ȥϲ١ҡӡ2014ǯ
ҥȥ顼ŷͤäȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ǥڥμˤȯˡλƳޤǼƤȤ顤˱ŪͤƼäƤȤ狼롥ҥȥ顼αȤȤƤΥꥢγʳˤĤơŪӥѥŪʬϤˡإҥȥ顼٤롥ŪʬϤ˴ؤƤϡҥȥ顼150줫ʤ뼫ѥѤĴܤȤʤäƤꡤƻˤĤƶ̣ʬϷ̤Ƥ롥
Ȥ櫓䤬ؿäΤϡʥȾħŪ˸̾ Ausdruck ɽˡBekenntnis ʸˡVerständnis ˤȴϢ̾칽ʸ¿Ѥ˴ؤʬϤǤʹġp. 161--62ˡư줫̾Ǥꡤ̾ŪʸΡ̾칽ʸˡפ˹ƤȤ̾칽ʸȤϡ֤٤줿ȡפ֤ζٱפ̾濴ȤɽΤǡѸǤ (the fact) that the train was terribly delayed the terrible delay of the train ΰ㤤Ǥ롥
פĤȤ̾칽ʸħС(1) ̩٤ǻʤ뤤ϥѥȡˡ(2) Ūǽդ餷ʤդ롤(3) β (hypostasis) κѤˤ̣Ƥ¤Ȥ䤹ȤȤʡ#1300. hypostasis ([2012-11-17-1]) ⻲ȡˡϡɥĸ졤Ѹ졤ܸʤɤˤⶦ̤ħȻפ롥
̾칽ʸˤƤϡбư칽ʸǤϤƤ;Ρꡤ֡ˡʤɤʸˡƤɸʤȤ¿ʬ̤ʤȤȤϡ٤˥奢ξݤ줿ۣΤޤޤ֤ȤȤȤƤϹ̩٤ǥѥȡijʼĥäͭΤǡƤȷδ֤ʥåפޤ롥ϤäꤷƤȤۣ桤ȤĤ߽ΤʤץȲѼԤϡְѡפ뤳ȤǤȤ櫓Ȥͤ̾칽ʸȥåȤƹǻȤʤǤ롥
ĤʬϤˤСҥȥ顼ξˤϡ֤Τ褦ʷȤФ餷ϡʥȾˤƤޤޤʹŪԻˤʰݤͿ뤿ΤΤǤä (161--63) Ȥ
ԡإҥȥ顼١ҡӡ2014ǯ
ε˰³18εϼȳơʸˡȤŪˤĤƤꡥεǿ줿褦ˡ18˹Τ褦˵ʸˡǤ졤ʤˤ֤褦줿Τ⤢äʸˡԾιޤȳʸˡȤŪȤϡʤطˤäΤ
ɤ顤Ūʸˡޤ졤줬Ūʰ̣礤äƼƤ졤Ծ碌ȤȤǤϤʤषԾˤʸˡο͵ŪˤȤˡŪȤǤäꡤǤƤȤȤȤΤ褦ʸˡζȤʤäȤɽǤºݤˤϤޤǰ褦˶Ȥ줿櫓Ǥʤ褦ǤꡤBeal (101) Ѥ롥
The 'doctrine of correctness' was thus invoked by writers of all political persuasions, so it would be a mistake to argue that any set of political circumstances created the market for grammars in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It might be wiser to agree with Crowley that 'language becomes a crucial focus of tension and debate at critical historical moments, serving as the site upon which political positions are contested' (2003: 217). Thus, the emergence of these grammars and the accompanying discussions about language and power are symptomatic of the turbulent times in which they were written.
ܵɸǤϡ18εϼפǤäBeal εϡΰѤˤ⤢̤19ˤƤϤޤȤɤ߿ʤȡ20--21ˤ̤ȤҤ٤Ƥ롥츫ȡʸˡȤΤϷӤĤʤ褦˻פ뤬ʸˡˡνפȲ᤹СʸˡȤΤҲŪʡפȷӤĤ˶ꤦ뤫ȤȤ褦ҤƤϡˤˤƸդϾäȤΤ⤷ʤ
ʤΰѤǸڤƤ Crowley ϡCrowley, T. Standard English and the Politics of Language. London: Palgrave, 2003. ΤȤǤ롥
Beal, Joan C. English in Modern Times: 1700--1945. Arnold: OUP, 2004.
Ѹ˾塤18 "doctrine of correctness" ħŤ줿ϼλǤɾƤΤˤˤϡȾ50ۤɤΡȾˤ200ĶʸˡǤ졤ϱʸˡȤäƤǤϤʤ
Beal ϡ5 "Grammars and Grammarians" ˤơ18Ϳ줿ŪɾˤĤƺƹͤ¥Beal (90) ϡ18ˤϵϼĬΤϴְ㤤ʤäΤΡȤΩϡŪ䥤ǥ˱͡ʣǤꡤñ˵ŪȤäɾǤԽʬǤƤ롥
[E]ighteenth-century grammarians had a range of motives for writing their grammars, and . . . these and later grammars, far from being uniformly 'prescriptive', would be better described as occupying different points on a prescriptive-descriptive continuum.
Ѹ˴ؤΤȤϡơŪѸˤĤȯƤ㤨СSwift Ann ȷȤݼʪư⤷Ƥޤ1707ǯ֥ƥϢ粦ΩơɸŪʱѸѸᡤåȥɿͤʤɤˤ餹ɬⴶƤϼطʤˤϡŪǤäΤǤ (Beal 97)
Whilst it is perfectly valid to see eighteenth- and nineteenth-century grammars both as the necessary agents of codification and as self-help guides for the aspiring middle classes, it cannot be denied that many of the authors of these works were politically and/or ideologically motivated.
Beal (111) ϡФΩ Lowth Priestley ˤڤξԤΰ㤤ΰ㤤ʴްդȤŪΰ㤤ˤǤȤƤ롥
These two grammarians [= Lowth and Priestley] were writing within a year of each other, so any norms of usage to which they refer must have been the same. Although both used a classical system of parts of speech, neither is influenced by Latin here: they both describe preposition-stranding as a naturally occurring feature of English, more suited to informal usage. The difference between Lowth and Priestley is one of emphasis only, far from the prescriptive-descriptive polarization which we have been led to expect.
18ʵڤӤʹߡˤθŪϼˤĤơɤäƤȤ¤ܤ٤ȤˤǼ줿Beal κɾɤǡɾ礭ۤʤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ褦˻פ줿Ǥϡ18ϵϼλǤȤ¤Фơ礭ʽϲäƤʤBeal Ǥ "prescriptive-descriptive continuum" ȤɽʤƤ뤬ϡִܤ prescriptive Ǥꡤ prescription Ȥ reason-usage continuum äפȹͤ뤳Ȥϡ³ǤǤ롥λä "descriptive" ȤƻѤ뤳Ȥϡޤ᤹ΤǤϤʤ
Ϣơ#141. 18εϤѤ ([2009-09-15-1])#2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1])#2778. Joseph Priestley --- ѽŻӤʸˡȡ ([2016-12-04-1])#2796. Joseph Priestley --- ѽŻӤʸˡ (2) ([2016-12-22-1]) ȡ
Beal, Joan C. English in Modern Times: 1700--1945. Arnold: OUP, 2004.
Ѹϰ̤첻Ϣ³ (hiatus) Ȥ롥첻Ϣ³ꤽʾ硤٤餫ΡȾ˻Ҳ뤳Ȥ¿㤨С첻ͿȤˤ [j] 첻ͿȤˤ [w] Ϥ겻 (glide) Ȥ졤seeing [ˈsiːɪŋ] [ˈsiːjɪŋ] Ȥȯ줿ꡤdoor [dɔə] [ˈdɔwə] Ȥʤäꤹ롥the apple Τ褦ʾǤ⡤[ði ˈæpl] Ϥ겻 [j] [ðiˈjæpl] ȯ뤳Ȥ¿ʡ#906. the ΰۤʤȯ ([2011-10-20-1])#2236. 첻 the ȯˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2015-06-11-1]) ȡˡϡĴ弫˸Ϥ겻Ǥʡ#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) ȡˡ
ʳˤ⡤ĴŪͳˤΤȤϹͤ줺¿ʤȤֲŪװͿƤΤȤơan apple Τ褦첻֤괧ˤߤ n Ūˤ n ݻȤ٤ˤ䡤the idea(r) is . . . Τ褦 r ⡤Ѹ첻Ϣ³ΰĤȤߤ뤳ȤǤʡ#831. Why "an apple"? ([2011-08-06-1])#500. intrusive r ([2010-09-09-1]) ȡˡ
⤦1Ĥ⤷ϡĺ (glottal_stop) [ʔ] Ǥ롥ĺϤȤ⤹̵դƤޤȤҲǤ롥̵Ȥʹ䤹ȤȤϡ첻֤ơڤܤɸΤΩȤȤǤ⤢롥Ϥ겻ή礦ȯˤ첻Ϣ³٤ΤФơĺϤषǫȯˤ2Ĥ첻Τ˶뤳Ȥ¿ʲθϡǫȯˤĺǤƣp. 35ˡ
co-operate [cəʊˈʔɒpəreɪt]
geometry [ðɪˈʔɒmətrɪ]
reaction [rɪˈʔækʃn]
day after day [ˈdeɪ ʔɑːftə ˈdeɪ]
law and order [ˈlɔː ʔənd ˈɔːdə]
better off [ˌbetə ˈʔɒf]
츫첻Τˡִ֡פ֤άΤ褦˻פ뤬 [j], [w], [n], [r] ƱΩɤʡֻҲפǤ롥
첻Ϣ³ȴϢơ#830. sandhi ([2011-08-05-1]) ⻲ȡ
ƣ ظդΤܤ롡ˤĤ줿Ѹܸ١ҡ2010ǯ
#2147. ѸΥեѸȽ ([2015-03-14-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡPolychronicon 15˱ Osbern Bokenham (1393?--1447?) Ȥʪ롥Υޥ衤Ѹ줬ե䤽¾θȺ礷줿ˤʤäƤޤäȡѸüԤǤʤѸȤ褦ˤʤäƤޤäȤò (purism) ̤Ǥ롥Bokenham Ƚľܤоݤϡեƥˤ֤줿ɼҲĬǤꡤ̤Ȥƿ͡ɤθѤˤڤʸոǤʤʤäƤ븽äBokenham Τܤ䤭Gramley (110) ΰѤǼ
And þis corrupcioun of Englysshe men yn þer modre-tounge, begunne as I seyde with famylyar commixtion of Danys firste and of Normannys aftir, toke grete augmentacioun and encrees aftir þe commyng of William conquerour by two thyngis. The firste was: by decre and ordynaunce of þe seide William conqueror children in gramer-scolis ageyns þe consuetude and þe custom of all oþer nacyons, here owne modre-tonge lafte and forsakyn, lernyd here Donet on Frenssh and to construyn yn Frenssh and to maken here Latyns on þe same wyse. The secounde cause was þat by the same decre lordis sonys and all nobyll and worthy mennys children were fyrste set to lyrnyn and speken Frensshe, or þan þey cowde spekyn Ynglyssh and þat all wrytyngis and endentyngis and all maner plees and contravercyes in courtis of þe lawe, and all maner reknyngnis and countis yn howsoolde schulle be doon yn the same. And þis seeyinge, þe rurales, þat þey myghte semyn þe more worschipfull and honorable and þe redliere comyn to þe famyliarite of þe worthy and þe grete, leftyn hure modre tounge and labouryd to kunne spekyn Frenssh: and thus by processe of tyme barbariȝid thei in bothyn and spokyn neythyr good Frenssh nor good Englyssh.
ºݤˤ15ˤϥɿͤΥեƥǽϤϤƤϤǤꡤɤγؤο͡Ū˱ѸѤˤʤäƵפäΤ顤γ줿ѸФܳŪʶҤȤƸƤ櫓ǤϤʤʴϢơ#2612. 14˥եǤϤʤѸǽȤ櫓 ([2016-06-21-1])#2622. 15˥ɿͤեؤͳ ([2016-07-01-1]) ȡˡθ줫μѸʤɤΡְ仺פϱѸˤߡѤ߽ŤͤƤꡤ줬 Bokenham θŪɷ㤷ƤΤȻפ롥षѸ¾ã줿λˤ뤤Ϥޤեƥˤ֤Ƥ뵮²濴Ȥ륤ɿͤؤȤ褦ʹ롥
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
ɻˤˤν𤲤1ȤСХ (the Wars of the Roses; 1455--85) ʤ̾դϡ Sir Walter Scott (1829) ΤΡˡε²֥ХϤ Lancaster ȤХ York Ȥ2ɤʬơ̷ѾäǤ롥30ǯˤ錄襤ξȶȤϿԤɤϵ뤬Ȥ Lancaster Ȥ Henry Tudor Henry VII ȤƲ̤˽Ȥˤʤä襤Ǥϵ²¤ᡤ϶뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ˾ͳ餬ҲŪƬȤʤä
Хϡɤæ餷ƶؤߤʤƤϴȤơкѡҲ˾ΰյդƤ뤬ѸˤδϤɤΤ褦ɾǤGramley (98--99) ϼΤ褦ɾƤ롥
. . . the series of wars that go under this name [= The Wars of the Roses] sped up the weakening of feudal power and strengthened the merchant classes since the wars further thinned the ranks of the feudal nobility and facilitated in this way the easier rise of ambitious and able people from the middle ranks of society. When the conflict was settled under Henry VII, a Lancastrian and a Tudor, power was essentially centralized. From the point of view of the language, this meant that the standard which had begun to emerge in the early fourteenth century would continue with a firm base in the usage which had been crystallizing in the London area at least since Henry IV (reign 1399--1413), the first king since the OE period who was a native speaker of English.
ɾˤȡ14Ⱦ˻ϤޤäƤѸɸಽ (standardisation) Хη̤ȤƲ졤滺餬ƬȤˤꡤ15ȾʹߤɥפȤƤä䤷ʤ뤳ȤˤʤäȤȤѸɸಽˤäȤץǤꡤѤˤȤꤽγϤ "the early fourteenth century" Υɥˤäȹͤ뤳ȤǤʡ#1275. ɸѸȯȼҲкѡ ([2012-10-23-1]) ȡˡθ塤ХޤǤ1Ⱦδ֤ˤɸಽϿʤǤޤǴʲäΤ褦ɸಽ䤫˿ʤǤȤˡХȤҲŪưꡤɸಽȤߤ벦滺餬礭ʱƶϤĤ˵ڤǡư¥ʤ줿ȤȤ
¾ŪαѸ˾ΰյˤĤƤϡʲεȡ
#119. ѸˤΤϥޥͥߤ!? ([2009-08-24-1])
#208. ȳ̿ȳ̿ȱѸˡ ([2009-11-21-1])
#254. ڥ̵Ṳ̃ȱѸˡ ([2010-01-06-1])
#255. ȱѸˡ ([2010-01-07-1])
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
#1962. ǰء ([2014-09-10-1]) #1961. ܥ٥ơ ([2014-09-09-1]) Ǥߤǰ (conceptual hierarchy) 뤤ݴط (hyponymy) ˤƤϡ㤨СֲȶפȤ̸ (hypernym) ۲ˡִפȤ̸ (hyponym) ꡤˤΡִפ̸ȤʤäơβˡٶפֺȴפȤ̸줬֤Ť롥ǤϡݤȤط˴ŤơΤع¤ʤƤΤħŪǤ롥
Τ褦 hyponymy Ƥ뤬̤٤ŪطȤơmeronymy ʬΤδطˤȸƤФΤ롥㤨Сּءפȡּž֡פʬΤδطˤꡤּءפϡּž֡פ meronym ʬˡּž֡פϡּءפ holonym θˤȾΤ롥meronymy ˤƤ hyponymy ξƱͤˡδطŪʤΤǤꡤ㤨Сּءפϡּž֡פˤȤäƤ meronym ؤաʥݡˡפˤȤäƤ holonym Ǥ롥Cruse (105--06) meronymy
meronymy This is the 'part-whole' relation, exemplified by finger: hand, nose: face, spoke: wheel, blade: knife, harddisk: computer, page: book, and so on. The word referring to the part is called the 'meronym' and the word referring to the whole is called the 'holonym'. The names of sister parts of the same whole is called 'co-meronyms'. Notice that this is a relational notion: a word may be a meronym in relation to a second word, but a holonym in relation to a third. Thus finger is a meronym of hand, but a holonym of knuckle and fingernail. (Meronymy must not be confused with by hyponymy, although some of their properties are similar: for instance, both involve a type of 'inclusion', co-meronyms and co-taxonyms have a mutually exclusive relation, and both are important in lexical hierarchies. However, they are distinct: a dog is a kind of animal, but not a part of an animal; a finger is a part of a hand, but not a kind of hand.
meronymy hyponymy ϡݡפȡֳع¤פǶ̤Ƥ뤬κǸˤ褦ˡԤ partԤ kind бΤǤȤۤǧ롥ޤmeronymy ǤϡʬΤߤˤɤΤ餤ɬܤǤ뤫ˤĤơhyponymy ξबΤǤʤȤ¿ִפȡܡפδطϤۤɬܤȹͤ뤬֥ġפȡֶߡסֲȡפȡϲפϤɤ
ˡhyponymy meronymy ϰܹ (transitivity) Ǥۤʤ뿶hyponymy ǤϰܹݤƤ뤬meronymy Ǥɬ⤽ǤϤʤ㤨Сּפȡֻءפȡޡפϸߤ meronymy δطˤꡤּˤϻؤפȸǤʤּˤޤפȤΤǡδط transitive Ȥߤʤ롥פȡפȡ륬饹פϸߤ meronymy δطˤ뤬뤬פȤϸƤ륬饹פȤϸʤΤǡtransitive ǤϤʤ
Cruse, Alan. A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
ε#2809. Ѹβžľ٤礦2˸¤ ([2017-01-04-1]) θȾǡܸβž (metathesis) Ǥϡ첻2ĤλҲؤ뤳Ȥ˸ڤ¤ϡ϶ä٤¤Ǥ롥ܸǤϡ̾ȡ֤֤֤㤬ޡפȡ֤֤֤ޤפΤ褦ˡ֤פȡ֤ޡפҤä֤äƤ褦˸Τǡ̾ñ̤뤤ϥ⡼ñ̤ǤθؤȵҤХޡȤΤ褦˻פ롥֤餿פȡ֤ס֤Ĥפȡ֤Ĥ⤴ס֤ŤĤߡפȡ֤ĤŤߡפǤ⡤2⡼ΰ֤ؤäƤȤߤʤΤñǤ롥
Ļθְ㤨Ȥơ֤Ƥߡפȡ֤Ƥޤס֤͡פȡ֤ʤס֤ޤפȡ֤ס֤ޤפȡ֤פʤɤͤȡʸ⡼ؤȤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ餫karada kadarategami temagimegane menagetamago tagamoomake okame Τ褦ˡ2⡼ˤĤ첻Ͽ֤뤬ҲؤäƤȹͤ롥˵֤餿פȡ֤פʤɤǤϡޤ2⡼첻ƱʤΤǡƤ벻žϥ⡼ñ̤Ǥؤȸ뤬ºݤˤϤǤҲؤäƤΤȹͤƤۤŪݤƤ롥֤ (sazaNka) ȡ֤ (saNzaka) Τ褦ˡ⡼ñ̤ǹͤɬפ⸫ΤΡ;嵭εҤͭ
¾͡Ƥȡܸβžϡ3ʾθǡ2ʹߤܤ벻֤פΤǤꡤĸ§ȤơֻҲؤפΤǤ뤳Ȥʬƣp. 6--7, 9ˡʾΤȤϡƣ (9) ȤǤꡤääƼΤ褦ɾƤ롥
ܸϥ⡼Ǥꡤ̾ϲʸǤ롥椨Ҳ첻϶̩˷礷ñ̤ȤơžξˤξʬΥ뤳ȤϤʤȻפ뤬ºݤˤϤη«ˤ졤Ҳؤ롥λ¤ʬϤԤäɮԤˤȤäƤ礭ʶäǤä
ѸܸʳΤޤޤʸβžʬϤơġθˤ븶§Фṽ¤ȲžȤδطĴ٤ȡ̣¤ȯǤǤ롥
ƣ ظդΤܤ롡ˤĤ줿Ѹܸ١ҡ2010ǯ
ž (metathesis) ˤĤơ#60. ž ( metathesis ) ([2009-06-27-1]) ϤȤƤĤεǼ夲ƤžϡĴԹˤ뤢θְ㤤ȤäƤ褤ΤǤꡤ̤ˤߤ븽ݤǤ롥žϡƸβ (phonotactics) Ȥ̩ܤʴط褦Ǥꡤηϸ֤ǰͤǤϤʤ㤨СѸξ硤űѸžߤ¤ꡤɸθ§ӤƤ롥
ƣ (8--9) ϡűѸ˴ѻʲ̤˵Ƥ롥
(a) ܤ r 첻θ
bridd > bird "bird"
drit > dirt "dirt" ʱʪ
frost > forst "frost"
þridda > þirda "third"
(b) ¾θ
æspe > æpse "aspen-tree"
ascian > axian "ask"
botle > bold "house"
cosp > cops "fetter"
frosc > frox "frog"
sedl > seld "seat"
spatl > spald "spittle" ñա
tusc > tux "tusk" ʲ
wlisp > wlips "lisping" 餺ȯ뤳ȡ
ΤɸѸDzžФȯѤƤΤϡ(a) bird, dirt, third ΤߤǤ롥ΤȤ顤ʬβžΤΤäȤ狼롥ɸŪʥǤϡ non-prevocalic r ȯʤʤäƤ뤿ᡤߤǤϡֻαƶ̵뤹ʤС˲žξ֤벻ŪưŤϤʤ
ֱѸβžľ٤礦2˸¤פȤƷǤɬפΤϡ㤨ܸǤϤޤäۤʤ郎ŬѤ뤫ܸβžξ硤षľ٤礦ҲؤϤʤ첻ӱۤƻҲؤΤ̤Ǥ롥֤⤮ߡפȡ֤褴ߡסŤĤߡפȡĤŤߡס֤֤֤㤬ޡפȡ֤֤֤㤬ޡס֤餿פȡ֤ʤˡס֤Сפȡ֤ϡʤФˡס֤Ĥפȡ֤Ĥ⤴פʤɤˤƤϡ̾ǽȾ狼ˤǸǤ tsugomori tsumogori Ȥ褦ˡľ٤äƤʤ첻֤˶ g m 2ҲؤƤ롥
žˤϡ줾θβηȿǤƤǽ⤤
ƣ ظդΤܤ롡ˤĤ줿Ѹܸ١ҡ2010ǯ
Ray Jackendoff Ƥ복ǰ̣ (conceptual semantics) ˤƤϡ̣ȤϿʹ֤ƬΤʤǥɲ¤Ǥ롥ʲθ "the Mentalist Postulate" ȸƤФƤ롥
Meaning in natural language is an information structure that is mentally encoded by human beings. (qtd. in Saeed 278)
Jackendoff ϡʸΰ̣ϹǤƸΰ̣ʤȹͤƤ뤿ᡤǰ̣Ǥϸΰ̣̤դʧ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥̾ΰ̣ʬϤ̤ơǰ̣ΰüƤߤ褦ʲSaeed (283--84) Ȥ롥
Jackendoff ϡ̾ΰ̣ħȤ [BOUNDED] [INTERNAL STRUCTURE] ƤƤ롥[BOUNDED] ϡŵŪˤϲĻ̾ (count noun) ȼ̾ (mass noun) ̤ΤѤ롥Ļ̾Τʶñ̤ؼ롥㤨Сa car a banana λؼоݤʪŪǤȤǤ줿ơΥΤϤϤ a car a banana ȤϸƤ٤ʤФơwater oxygen Τ褦ʼ̾ϡʣʬʬ䤷ȤƤ⡤ơʬ water oxygen ȸƤ³뤳ȤǤ롥äơĻ̾ [+b] Ȥơ̾ [-b] ȤƵҤ뤳ȤǤ롥
[INTERNAL STRUCTURE] ˤĤƸƤߤ褦Ļ̾ʣ㤨 cars bananas ϡ˹¤Ȥߤʤ[+i] ɽ魯Фơwater oxygen Τ褦ʼ̾¤ʤȤߤʤ[-i] Ȥʤ롥
2Ĥΰ̣ħ [BOUNDED], [INTERNAL STRUCTURE] ݤ碌ȡ4̤Ȥ߹碌Ǥơ4̤γơ̾줬¸ߤ뤳ȤԤ롥ºݡѸˤϤ줬롥Ƥߤ褦
[ Material Entity ]
individuals groups substances aggregates
(count nouns) (collective nouns) (mass nouns) (plural nouns)
[+b, -i] [+b, +i] [-b, -i] [-b, +i]
a banana, a government, water, bananas,
a car a committee oxygen cars
°ˡ20ؤϲ⤿餷٤7ϤˡֿؤȱѸ춵ȤΤפꤹϤꡤɸ䤤Ƥ롥ǤؤȤϡʸˡ (generative_grammar) ؤƤ롥ͤƤΤǡҲ𤷤
ޤ䤤ϤƤȤƤǤϤʤȿȤȯΤȤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ĤޤꡤȤơֿؤϱѸ춵ΩʤפȤȯۤȤȤФϡŪʳعʸˡˤʤ櫓ϡΤ鷺Ѹ춵ȤäƤΤǤ롥褫줢졤ΤʤΤǤäΤǤ롥ݤؤΤʤΤФơΩĤפȤΩʤפ䤦Ȥϡޤạ̈ʤʤȤȤϤʤ¤ߤ˷礱뤳ȤˤʤΤǤϤʤȻפ롥פΤ褦ʰ֤Ťˤعʸˡ֤ۤɤαѸ춵ʸˡˤϡϴñ˸ʤΰ̣ǤϡʸˡȤơ¾ΡʸˡȤơɤƤǤ롥
ǤϡѸ춵ʸˡˤȤϤɤΤ褦ʾƤɬפΤ° (152) ۩2Ǥ롥ΤȤ櫓פʤΤϡѸ춵塤ġФ뤳ȤǤʤΤϻʤȤƤ⡤ѸΤʤ褦ǤϡʸˡȤƼʤǤ롥عʸˡϡ˵ˤʤ⡤ϳݤ褦ؤƤФơȤȤ϶ŪȯŸ櫓ǤϤʤʸˡϡŪʼǤϾ뤬ؿꡤäȸˤФäƤ뤿ᡤϤʤäơѸ춵餬Ż뤹ΤǤʾ塤ƤʸˡϳعʸˡˤʤʤȤäƤ褤
ʸˡϤȤʸˡϡŪǤϤʤ¤줿ΰ˴ؤƤΤߤǤϤˤ衤عʸˡμ㤵äơ٤餫뤳ȤˤϹعʸˡϡˡϽᤫ餢٤ȤȤΩäƤ뤬ʸˡΤ줿ʬˤĤƤϵۼǤ뤳ȤǤͭΩˤΤǤ롥
° (155--56) η
ؤοθϡŪʸˡȤ߹ޤ줿ִ֤顤ʸˡΰˤʤꤦΤǤ롥ˡμ⤿ʤʸˡϡηǡФȤơؤθʬŪˤǤ⡤˴ޤߤȤߤäƤΤǤ롥פˡؤϱѸ춵ΩĤȤ䤤ϡŪعʸˡϱѸ춵ΩĤȤ䤤ɽʤΤǤäơŪ˸СξԤȤޤä̵ѤǤȤϡξԤȤ⡤ǽƤȤƱͤ˸ǤꡤѸ춵طԤΩ줫餹ʤ顤ʶŪ˸ڤ;͵äͭѤʤΤǤ¤ꡤŪعʸˡǤѷʸˡǤȤ鷺ΤѤ٤ǤȤʰ˿Ԥ뤳ȤˤʤȻפ롥
° ̭20ؤϲ⤿餷١ҡ2011ǯ
ޤƤǤȤޤ2017ǯ hellog ³Ƥޤɤꤤޤ
ǯȾˡܥ֥Ƥ⤪˼رѸΡ֤ʤפ롡ϤƤαѸˡǤޤѸ˴ϢʬȤƤϡ̤˥ޥʡΰȤߤƤֱѸˡפǤ¸߰յǤ¿ΤäƤ餤ߤСѸˤܳŪٶƤߤȤˤʤäƤ館ФȻפɮޤμɮưܥ֥μɮưȴ˰פƤޤΤǡξԤ碌ɤǤФȻפޤ
ؤϤƤαѸˡ٤νǤˤȤʤѥ˥ ҤΥߤƤꡤĥƥĤ䤷ƤǤΥڡǤϡܽγƾбܥ֥ؤΥ¿ĥäƤޤΤǡܥ֥ɼԤˤؿäƤ館뤫Ȼפޤ⺣ɤɤäƤͽǤ
ܽƱݡƥȤΡϢܡ⡤ǯƱѥ˥ȤǸƤͽǤϢܴܽαĹȤ֤ŤǡܽϢŪƤΤǤᤱпָˤ1Ǻܤ뤳ȤˤʤޤꤤޤϢơ#2764. رѸΡ֤ʤפ롡ϤƤαѸˡ٤Ǥޤ ([2016-11-20-1]) ⤴Ȥ
Ǥϡǯɤǯˤʤޤ褦ˡ
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