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ǯ1227ΤȤˤʤޤīʹ Edua ֤ɤʤءΩαѸ쥹ԡƥȡ餬ƳȿСפεԲꤹ뵭Ǻܤޤ1ͤҲ𤷤Ƥޤơ٤Фʤ⤳ؤΥե khelf ǵȯƤƤޤ
ϤΤǤȤ櫓ܤ٤ϰʲǤƱѡˡ
ɾοˤĤƤϡɤΤ褦ʴְ㤤ɤ뤫ƩȤäԶѤƤˤֲפιܡ3ˤˤĤƵ褷ιܤϡαƶ˶Ƥפ1αƶƤפ2αƶƤ礬뤬ʤˤפ3ȤƤ롥ˡֻդǿѸ춵鸦ĹĿϡָ̩ʶ̤ĤȤϻפʤܸüԤܸαƶɬƤꡤˤƤޤȤäʤƤǤʤˤ¿ͤʱѸ줬Τˡ̤ȤΤϤΤǤϤʤפä
ĥåߤ饭꤬ʤȤΤϡޤˤΤȤǤ餳ե夬äƤȤ櫓ạ̇̄ǤȤƤ褤ȤʤäƤޤʤΥڡ3ǯ٤ΥץƥȺǤϡαƶפ˴ؤܤϺƤޤ
Ѹ˸ԤΩ줫뤳Ȥϡȯ濴Ȥäդ˴ؤ붯ϲϡޤĤ㤬ʤȤȤǤ18εϼλȯˤĤƤ⡤19Ⱦ RP ˤĤƤ⡤ޤܻؤ٤ȯΤǤꡤΡָŪʻǤפȤεϲˤϱڤӤޤcf. #768. ѲĤĤ RP ϰ̡ ([2011-06-04-1])#1456. John Walker A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791) ([2013-04-22-1])#3356. ɸȯ18Ⱦ ([2018-07-05-1])ˡäդˤĤɸಽϲϡ "focused" ˤȤɤޤ "fixed" ܻؤȤϸ¤ˤԲǽǤ (cf. #3207. ɸѸȸɸಽ˴ؤ뤤ĤνѸ ([2018-02-06-1])) Τ褦ɸƻǤϲȤ¸ȤȤʤΤǤ礦
ޤ "World Englishes" Ǥϡ¿ͤʱѸȯԤʤƤȤ¤ޤ塤Ȥ٤ѸѼȯ뤳ȤɬפǤ¾Ѽȯ¸ߤǧ뤳ȤɬפǤξɬۤꤹ٤ˤơ嵭κΤ褦ʡˤΤ߿ڤäˤΤŬڤǤϤʤȹͤޤ
ܥ֥ɼԤγ⡤ˤĤƹͤƤߤƤϤǤ礦
ǯ1ǯ֤ΡֱѸˡֵˡԤɸ䤤ꤲƤޤǯ٤Ƥ餤ޤ椫ݤ˻ĤäΤԥååפޤѸˤΤ⤷ɤäƤ館ФȻפޤѸˤγؤӤγϡ³Υ١ȤƤɤ
ֽաפȡäաפۤɶӤĤƤʤȤȤǤϤʤȻפޤǤϽդ¿餤٤ˤͤƤʤäΩߤȤˡ줾˰㤦ΤȤȤΤ뤳Ȥ褿
ѸˤμȤ̤ƱѸȤƤǤϤʤŪʷҤ̻ˤȳ̻ˤξ¦̤ؤ֤ȤǡѸθ礭ѤޤϤޤǤʸˡä¿αѸŪʬͤȤʤäǤѸˤϳ̻ˤ礭̻ˤ˱ƶͿƤȤ狼äǤ
Ѹϰ̤褷1314ˤϡҤȤͳեƥѤƤȤ顤ñ˲äǤϤʤ˿ʹ֤θɤޤޤƤΤȻפޤ
䤬ѸˤؤϡѸ줬줿ͳϡѸϹ¤ñǡ¿οͤˤ狼䤹ȻפäƤϰäƤȤ˵Ĥ
䤬ѸˤμȤdzؤǡǤͤȹͤΤϡѸ줬ᤫ麣ζ̸ȤƤαѸΤ褦ˡҹ⤤ǤϷ褷̵äȤȤؤ٤ȤǤ롥
ˤȤĤΤޤ깥ǤϤʤäϰĤΤ줤ʥȡΤȤǤٶƤʤäȼȤƵĤ㤨첻ܤˤĤơݤäΤǤϤʤʤ줬ͤꡤηŪˤߤѲ㳰ߤĤꡤ뤤ϥƥαѸؤμѤαѸܸؤμѤŤͤӤꡤˤΤΤǤϤʤΤä͡ʻͤƤˤؤ֤Ȥ⤷ʤΤΤ뤳ȤǤ
Ѹˤݡˡ§첻ܤȤäڤ䤫Ȥ礭ʽФܤƤޤǤ롥¤Ϻ٤äȤѲȾǤꡤäѲѤ߽ŤͤDZѸˤǤ夬äƤ롥
γؤǤͤΤ뤳Ȥϡä˳ؤ֡פΤǤϤʤֿ͡ΤͤɽݤȤƳؤ֡
䤬ءDZѸȶ줿ѸηΤ˵͡ʽۤƤΤǤȤȤΤꡤʵդʤȤꤹڤؤ֤ȤǤޤάͼʬƤäʪ뤳ȤʤʤǤޤǤؽˤʤȤǤȻפäʪȤȤؤȤϺǤͤȴޤ
褯ָΤʸʬȤ뤬αѸˤμȤ̤Ƥΰ̣뤳ȤǤ
ˤޤǡޤѲβˤñ⤢ꡤޤˡѲΩƤȤưä
β٤ʤ˾夬äȤȤǤѸϡХҲǤ븽Ƥ䤿ˤȤäƤʤȶʤΤǤطʤǵäȤܤ뵡ϤʤʤޤѸˡڥ桤ȯʤɡֻפ֤ФäȵäʡפȤȤμȤǰ쵤餫ˤʤޤ
Ѥʵεꤹ뤳ȤγڤڤפؤεŤ
ѤΤƤȡߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤפȤȤǤάͤμȤǤϡޤǼʬɤۤɤ꤫ޤäͤƤΤɤۤɤѤˤȽǤƤΤפΤ뤳ȤǤƱˡؤְ̣Ƴǧޤ
ȤȤǡǯ٤ΡֱѸˡֵϤˤƽλ
ǯ٤Ʊݤμؤβϡʲ
#2470. 2015ǯ١ѸˤμȤ̤ƲؤӤޤ ([2016-01-31-1])
#3566. 2018ǯ١ѸˤμȤ̤ƲؤӤޤ ([2019-01-31-1])
#3922. 2019ǯ١ѸˤμȤ̤ƲؤӤޤ ([2020-01-22-1])
̾춦ƱΤˤ͡夬˽Ǥ롥ѲϤΤʤꡤ夹롥ϻ֤ȤȤ˻٤ƤäΥѥ֤ǰۤʤäƤΤƱʤΤ
ŪˤºŪˤ⡤ȿ2ĤΥѥǧ褦Ǥ롥1ĤϡѲ (generational change)⤦1ĤϡֶƱѲ (communal change) Nevalainen (573) Janda ͤˤƼΤ褦ʿƤ롥
(a) Generational change
frequency
________ G6
________ G5
________ G4
________ G3
________ G2
________ G1 time
(b) Communal change
frequency |
| | G6
| | G5
| | G4
| | G3
| | G2
| G1 time
ѲοδפˤΤϡ̤ƿλ٤ݤĤȤǤ롥Ťλ٤ϤĤޤǤäƤ㤤ޤޤǤꡤλ٤ϤĤޤǤäƤ⤤ޤޡȤȤƱѲοꤷƤΤϡ夬Ʊߥǿλ٤夲ȤȤʤɤޤǾ夬뤫֤ǰۤʤˡ2ĤΩǤ뤳Ȥ䤹
ѲѲѲΥѥƤϤޤꡤѲѲ϶ƱѲƤϤޤ롤ȤŦ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬ºݤˤɬ⤽Τ褦ˤ줤ˤϤʤNevalainen (573--74) ǿƤѲλϤƤߤȡ16ˤ do ˡ (do-periphrasis) ιꡦʿʸǤȯãϡͽۤȤѲäΤΡ17ιʸǤοѲȶƱѲξѥǿʤȤ롥ޤ19οʹԷ (progressive) äѲ1ĤǤϤ뤬षƱѲΥѥ˱äƤȤ
Ūʻ˾Ȥ餹¿ꤽ2ĤΥѥ̤ƤȤͭѤ
Nevalainen, Terttu. "Historical Sociolinguistics and Language Change." Chapter 22 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 558--88.
Janda, R. D. "Beyond 'Pathways' and 'Unidirectionality': On the Discontinuity of Language Transmission and the Counterability of Grammaticalization''. Language Sciences 23.2--3 (2001): 265--340.
ʥȥεǤƤޤäϤޤʸؼԤǤ Saussure (1857--1913) θ (6) Ѥ The Routledge Linguistics Encyclopedia (3rd ed.) ¹Ǽ餹뤬̤ (xxxvii)
1. to describe all known languages and record their history (this involves tracing the history of language families and, as far as possible, reconstructing the parent languages of each family);
2. to determine the forces operating permanently and universally in all languages, and to formulate general laws which account for all particular linguistic phenomena historically attested;
3. to delimit and define linguistic itself.
פˡ֤̻֤ޤΤ¦̤ˤĤơֵҡסס֥פ3鹶衤ȤȤ
3Ĥʤɤ˱ԤɤɤޤǤؤƤʤΤȤ䤤Ǥ롥ؤμΩȤˤ̤뤬1εꤹ褦ʤȤŦƤʤȤǽײ1ĤȤƵƤΤäˡ塼뤬ŪʻäƸįƤȤ褯ʬ롥
Saussure, F. de. Course in General Linguistics. Trans. W. Baskin. London: Fontana/Collins, 1983. (First edition published 1916).
Malmkjær, Kirsten, ed. The Routledge Linguistics Encyclopedia. 3rd ed. London and New York: Routledge, 2010.
The Routledge Linguistics Encyclopedia ν (xxv) ˡ20ʹߡ100ǯ֤βƤˤؤȯŸοƤ3ĤʳʬƤ롥ζʬ
Phase 1: The emergence of modern linguistics (1911--33)
1911 Saussure's third (final) lecture series in Geneva
Boas's 'Introduction' to Handbook of American Indian Languages
1912 Daniel Jones becomes Head of Department of Phonetics, University of London
1913 Death of Saussure (1857--1913)
1914 Bloomfield's Introduction to the Study of Language
1916 Saussure's Cours de linguistique géenerale
1921 Sapir's Language
1924 Linguistic Society of America founded
1925 First volume of the journal, Language
1928 First International Congress of Linguists (The Hague)
1932 First International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (Amsterdam)
1933 Bloomfield's Language
Phrase 2: A time of transition (c. 19025--60)
1923 Malinowski's 'The problem of meaning in primitive languages'
1926 Linguistic Circle of Prague founded
1938 Death of Trubezkoy (1890--1938)
1939 Trubetzkoy's Grndzüge der Phonologie
Death of Sapir (1884--1939)
1941 Death of Whorf (1897--1941)
1942 Death of Boas (1858--1942)
1944 J.R. Firth becomes Professor of General Linguistics, University of London
1949 Death of Bloomfield (1887--1949)
1951 Harris's Methods in Structural Linguistics
1953 Weinreich's Languages in Contact
1956 Jacobson and Halle's Fundamentals of Language
1957 Chomsky's Syntactic Structures
Phrase 3: The expansion and diversification of linguistics (since 1960)
1961 Halliday's 'Categories of the theory of grammar'
1963 Greenberg's Universals of Language
1964 Chomsky's Aspects of the Theory of syntax
1966 Labov's The Social Stratification of English in New York City
1973 Halliday's Explorations in the Functions of Language
1981 Chomsky's Lectures on Government and Binding
1985 Halliday's Introduction to functional Grammar
1986 Chomsky's Knowledge of Language
1995 Chomsky's The Minimalist Program
1ϡ塼αƶϤΤȤˡƤʤʤˤĴ·ʤ鶦Ū¤ŪؤΩ塥2ϡƤδ֤ǰۤʤ˸ؤȯŸƤä塥3ϡؤδ¿Ͳ뤲Ǥ
Malmkjær, Kirsten, ed. The Routledge Linguistics Encyclopedia. 3rd ed. London and New York: Routledge, 2010.
̣¸ߤΤȤů (philosophy_of_language) ꤬롥ǿͤǤϡ¸ߤƤȻפ櫓Ф¸ߤΤƱ褦¸ߤƤΤȼʤʤäƤ롥̤δФǤϡ˸ФϳΤ˵ҴŪ¸ߤƤ褦˻פ롥̣Ʊ褦ʵҴä¸ߤƤȤΤ̣Ȥϡ¸ߤˤƤ⡤ޤǼŪˤΤ¸ߤƤΤʤΤǤϤʤ⤷ȤȡĤޤҴŪʰ̣ȤΤ¸ߤʤȤȡä٤Ƴ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ϡ (94--95) Ѥ褦
⤷ҴŪоݤȤƤΰ̣¸ߤʤȤƤߤ褦ȡͣޤפȤȤ̣ʤʤʤΤǤ롥ʲ褦
Ȥϡۤʤδ֤ǰ̣ƱɽƱΤб뤳ȤǤ롥䤿̾ҴŪоݤȤƤΰ̣¸ߤȹͤƤơθ°ɽ A 硤줬ɽ̣ m äơ m ɽ⤦θ°ɽ B ʤФˤ A бȡA B ˡ줿ȹͤƤϤʤ⤷ m ɽʤɽ C A бСϸȤΤǤ̸ά͡
Ȥάm n Τ¸ߤʤȤСɤΤ褦ˤ B A ǤꡤC ϤǤʤȼĥ褤ΤޤޤʲþˤƱ߳ʤȤ꤬ǽȤʤ뤫ɤȤäȤܰ¤ˡפȤȤϤꤦ뤬Τ褦ʴȤäȤͣޤݾڤϤɤˤʤơԳ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ϡꥫůؼ Willard van Orman Quine (1908--2000) Word and Object (1960) ǼĥԳ (indeterminacy of translation) ȸƤФ븽ݤߺդΤǤ롥ԳäƤϡʸˡ Noam Chomsky (1928--) Ȥδ֤Ǹ褬깭줿Ȥ褯ΤƤ롥
Ϣơ#920. The Gavagai problem ([2011-11-03-1]) ȡ
͵ظů١Ҧ˼2003ǯ
ؤäǶ̤Ǥʸʸ칶λαѸ˥ߤ濴Ȥե khelf (= Keio History of the English Language Forum) Ǥϡ饤ȴȤʤä1ǯȾۤɡåȥġѤơ֤Ϥͥ (chiguhagu_channel) ʤͷӡʤפʳؽŪήǤˤƤޤ
СγˡֱѸѤʵƤפƤƤӤƤ⡤Ǥ˥ͥԤƤꡤʤʤΤФƤޤαѸγؤӤʤɤǵŤ͡ʥϥƷƤפȸƤӤѤȡϽФƤޤѸΥϥǤ⡤ѸǤΥϥǤ褤ǤʤϥǤʤƤġȤͳȯεǤ
Ȥ⤷ΤФƤƤΤǤ줿ʡ֥ϥƷפľܸ櫓ˤ⤤ޤΤǡ伫Ȥ1ۤɤǽƤϥĤϪȻפޤΤǤϤޤʥΥǥͥĽޤäƤƤȤȤǤ
Τ褦ѤʵѤФܥ֥ Voicy ΡֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸Ǽ夲ΥȤʤäƤޤ
child 2첻ʤΤˡchildren û첻Ʊwild 2첻ʤΤˡwilderness û첻Ϥͥ롪
ʸˡǤϡ2ӵ worser ϥᡥƱ2ӵ lesser OKϤͥ롥
sometimes -s °ʡʽͭʡ˸ͳ褹롥some times -s ʣͳ褹롥Ϥͥ롪
well written: ܤˤޤƤ
well read: ʿͤܤ褯ɤǤؤǤ
ƱʬƻʤΤˡϤͥ롪
̤αѸѸǤ r l Τ˶̤ޤΤǵĤޤ礦͡rice/lice, right/light ʤɴְ㤨ѤǤ补
ѸˤΤäƤѸͥƥäƺ𤷤Ƥ褦Ǥ补coriander ϸŤ coliandre ämarble Ʊ褦 marbre äΤǡ
Ϥͥ롪
ĴҤ˾äƤ⤦1ġ
̤αѸѸǤ v b Τ˶̤ޤΤǵĤޤ礦͡very/berry, vest/best ʤɴְ㤨ѤǤ补
ѸˤΤäƤѸͥƥäƺ𤷤Ƥ褦Ǥ补have, live θűѸθ habban, libban äΤǡ
Ϥͥ롪
ܲΤˤä֥ߥס¸̤ꡤꥷե٥åȤ15ʸ "o-miron" ʥߥˤȸƤФ־ oסʡû첻 oˤΰաǸ24ʸ "o-mega" ʥᥬˤϡ礭 oסʡĹ첻 oˤΰա
Ǥϡ˱Ѹä˰ܤޤѸǤĹ첻Ρ֥פϡŪ <oo> ֤ [o:] ȯƤޤ첻ܤˤ [o:] > [u:] Ȥʤä food, moon, pool Ǥ [u:] ȯޤѸǤΡ֥ᥬȯפȸƤǤޤ礦
Ȥˤ [o:] > [u:] Ȥʤäˡȯû첻С֥ߥפ [ʊ] ȤʤäΤޤ줬good, look, took ΥפǤѸǤΡ֥ߥȯפȸƤǤޤ礦
ȤȤǡޤȤȡ
ᥬȯ food, moon, pool, etc.
ߥȯ good, look, took, etc.
ʥ륹֥ᥬפޤǹԤʤȤäơϤͥ롪
16--17αѸ졧
ȯ첻 (Great Vowel Shift) ˤѲ뤲褦ȤƤ
ֻɸಽε˾ꡤŤȯ¤ʤޤޤ˸경褦ȤƤ
줬 spelling-pronunciation gap Թʵȯֻɤäϥʱ̿
both either ȿոȻפޤΤ both A and B ϡABξפǡeither A or B ϡABɤ餫פȳؤϤǤˤȿդǤ͡
Unfortunately I was sitting at the table with smokers on both sides of me.
Unfortunately I was sitting at the table with smokers on either side of me.
Ȥ2ĤʸƱʤΤǤϤͥ롪
ƻ free бȤƤñ free ȡ-ly freely ޤ͡
to travel free: ̵ιԡ
to travel freely: ֤⼫ͳǡ¤ʤι
ɤǤɤ͡ϥ
κޤͤ
conceive - conceit - concept - conception
deceive - deceit -decept- deception
receive -receit- receipt - reception
perceive -perceit- percept - perception
ۤʤ˥ƥ줫ڤꤿꡤե줫ڤꤿꡤġ̡ưƤ顤夫Ƥߤȡˤʤä㤦櫓Ǥ
줬¾ʸˤܿ礭ʻɷȤˡ絬ϤʸóȽ뤳ȤޤκݤˡΤޤ¾줫Ѥ֥ץѡפȡƼ֤äĤѡפȤ2Ĥˡޤˤäơˤ褽줤ʬޤ
֥ץѡפˡեƶѸ졤ƥƶѸ졤ƶʹߤܸ
֤äĤѡפˡƥƶűѸ졤ƥαƶΥɥĸ졤θƶܸ
2Ĥˤäơơθ졦DzɤۤʤäƤΤϤͥ롥
ʾ12ˤĤͤǤ
¿θˤϡ (time) ˴Ϣ복ǰɸ뵡ǽޤޤܸˤѸˤ⤢äʬ䤹Τ (tense) Ȥ (category) Ǥ͡ߡ̤ȤּΥݥȤǤ
⤦1ġ褯ʹΤ (aspect) Ǥaspect Ȥñϡֶ̡¦̡֡¡פۤɤ̣Ƥ褵ǤǤʬˤפȤʤäƤΤǺޤʤۤؽѸȤƤ꤬ȤäΤǤ礦͡ޤ괶Ǥޤ夷ƤޤäΤ̵뤹櫓ˤ⤤ޤΤǡϡפ̤ޤ
ơaspect פˤĤƻͽĴ٤Ƥߤȡ͡⤬Ƥޤߤ˼ݤ礭ۤʤޤ
ư˴ؤʸˡƤΰĤǡưɽ魯ư֤ΤȤ館ӤʸˡʡؿѸؼŵ, p. 96
The grammatical category (expressed in verb forms) that refers to a way of looking at the time of a situation: for example, its duration, repetition, completion. Aspect contrasts with tense, the category that refers to the time of the situation with respect to some other time: for example, the moment of speaking or writing. There are two aspects in English: the progressive aspect ('We are eating lunch') and the perfect aspect ('We have eaten lunch'). (McArthur 86)
A grammatical category concerned with the relationship between the action, state or process denoted by a verb, and various temporal meanings, such as duration and level of completion. There are two aspects in English: the progressive and the perfect. (Pearce 18)
ȾǯۤΤȤǤ饤ȤκˡꥺХפäƲǤȤ䤬åȤǴޤΤȤ˼¨ʤβȤפФޤΤǡ˺ƸޤȤȤ⤢ꡤξǤʬ䤹Ż뤷奢ǻŪʲˤϤʤäƤޤäʬ䤹⤷ޤ
꤬Ȥɤ㤦ȤƤǤ礦͡ȤäΤǤ褯Τϡפưɽ魯ư֤ꡤֻפưɽ魯ưγ֤Ȥޤ
㤨 jump ķ֡פγ֤ʬ䤹ơķסķ֡סķ֤פǤ֤͡ȤΤϡķ֡פȰǤäƤ⡤ӤζĥķӻϤ褦ʤȤʳʡˤ⤢СºķӻϤƤȤʳʡˤ⤢뤷ķǤƶˤʳʡˤ⤢Сķӽäʳʡˤ⤢Сķӽääʳʡˤ⤢Ȥ褦ˡǤϾʤȤ5ʳ餤櫓Ǥ⡼βΤɤǻߤ褦ȤäǤκ٤ʳɽ魯ΤפǤ֤ؤäƤǤ϶̤ƤޤֻפȤ̼λ֤ªǤ͡
ˤפγǰΰΤߤĤޤβˤޤͤˤʤС
⤦ܳŪˤϡ#2747. Reichenbach λ ([2016-11-03-1]) ⻲ȡ
ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
Pearce, Michael. The Routledge Dictionary of English Language Studies. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007.
ε#4652. any ֤ɤ?Ǥפɽ碌褦 either ϡ֤?Ǥפɽ碌 ([2022-01-21-1]) Ǥ⤹Ǥ˼夲ޤɸܲΥߤ濴Ȥ khelf (= Keio History of the English Language Forum) Сδ֤ǮоݤȤʤäƤǤ
either ϡ2ԤΤΤ줫֡פΰ̣ɽ魯ȤȻפޤ¤ϡξפΰ̣ɽ魯⤢ȤǤ contronym Ȥޤ
إѥ¼ŵ٤ either ꡤ줾б1ȸ2Ѥޤ礦
--- ʷˡñ̾ˤĤơ
(1) 2ġ2͡ϤΤˤɤ餫ʰˤΡɤΡĤǤ⡤ɤǤǤդ
Take either apple.äɤ餫Τʤ
You may invite either boy.äɤξǯԤƤ빽Ǥ
. . . .
(3) ɤΡĤ⡤ξ
There was a chair at either end of the long table.Ĺơ֥ξüˤ줾줤֤Ƥ
ʸˡ3ΰ̣Ǥä side, end, hand ʤФɽ魯̾Ѥ뤬Τ褦 bothʡʣ̾ˤ eachʡñ̾ˤѤ뤳Ȥ¿both ϡξפƱˤޤȤơeither, each ϡ Ĥ줾̤ª봶Ȥʤ
There were chairs at both ends of the long table.
There was a chair at each end of the long table.
either A or B Ȥ٤ɽޤ̤ˤ (1) either θªƤȻפޤŪˤߤжäȤ (3) ΤۤŤΤǤOED ˤС(3) ϸűѸ줫̤˸Ǥ(1) ѸˤʤäƤ褦䤯뿷Ǥ
ɤƤʤȤˤʤäƤޤäΤǤ礦褯֤ outher ȤȤ䤳ط˴٤äƤޤäȤ𤬤褦ǤϢơ#945. either 2Ĥȯ ([2011-11-28-1]) ⤴Ȥ
#4649. Ļ̾ԲĻ̾ζ̤Ϥޤ줿Τ ([2022-01-18-1]) εƤȤɼԤϢʸ롤ȤȤǶƤޤβʹˤ¸ʤä Toyota ʸǤؤ꤬ȤǤ®ɤǤߤޤ
ʸμݤǤToyota (118) ƬꡤʸƤʸϤѤޤ
Our main question is about how the distinction between mass and count nouns evolved. Earlier English surprisingly has a relatively poor counting system, the distinction between count and mass nouns not being clear. This poor distinction in earlier English has developed into a new systems of considering certain referents as mass nouns, and these referents came to be counted differently from those considered as count nouns. There are various changes involved in this development, and it is possible that factors like language contact caused the change. This view is challenged, asking whether other possibilities, such as a change in human cognition and the world-view of speakers, also affected this development.
ƱʸˤСűѸ줫ѸޤǤϡĻ (countability) ˴ؤ̤ΤˤϤʤäȤȤǤʤμΤ褦ʤΤϤäΤǤˡϡĻζ̤ĤƤʤäȹͤĸħηѾ¸ȹͤƤ褵Ǥ
ȤѸ줫顤Ȥ櫓ѸˤơǡȤƸ̤Ļζ̤Ĥ褦ˤʤäƤޤطʤˤϡǤ˲Ļζ̤Ƥƥե줫αƶͤޤǤŪûΤʶ̤¤ʬˤǤޤǡܿˤ꿨ȯ줿ǽǧĤĤ⡤ȯŪ˱ѸˤѡסʼˤС̾ʬפۤɤǤ礦ˤѲΤǤϤʤ Toyota Ƥޤ
Helsinki Corpus ˤиŪĴȤܤͤޤȤΩƤ줿ѡפѲ¾ڤˤϥꥢʤФʤʤ꤬ޤ¿褦˻פޤǤ⡤ؤ䤹ŪʻߤȤɤळȤǤޤ⡤˴ؿͯƤޤ
Toyota, Junichi. "When the Mass Was Counted: English as Classifier and Non-Classifier Language." SKASE Journal of Theoretical Linguistics 6.1 (2009): 118--30. Available online at http://www.skase.sk/Volumes/JTL13/pdf_doc/07.pdf .
Any child can do that. Ȥʸϡ֤ɤʻҶǤ⤽줬Ǥפΰդɽ路ޤ֤ϰۤʤޤŪʰ̣ȤƤ All children can do that. Ȥ褽ƱǤ
ʿŪޤEither way will do. Ȥʸϡ֤ΤǤ⤦ޤԤޤפΰդɽ路ޤ֤ϰۤʤޤŪʰ̣ȤƤ Both ways will do . Ȥ褽ƱǤ
ä2Ĥ either both ѤʸڥƱѤȤΤϡʤʤζäǤϤʤǤ礦ȤΤϡ䤿 either (A or B) both (A and B) еɽǤȿޤƤǤ2Ĥʸ̮ˤäƤϤषɽȤ٤ΤˤʤΤǤ
either ϡ̤ˤ2ĤΤΡ֤줫סҰפ̣Ƥޤ¤ϡ֤ΡǤʤ褤ˡפȤϢϡ֡ξǤäƤʤ褤ˡפβޤؤȤǤСor ˤϡ¾Ū (exclusive disjunction) ȡ¾Ū (inclusive disjunction) ξ뤳ȤǤ礦
ȤȤǡ¿Υ˥奢ΰ㤤Ϥʤ⡤either both ǥѥե졼ǤƤޤΤǤ㤨Сȡ
Unfortunately I was sitting at the table with smokers on either side of me.
Unfortunately I was sitting at the table with smokers on both sides of me.
either vs both ΰ̣Ūĥطϡany vs all ζĥطȥѥǤԤ2ĤΤΤˤĤơԤ3İʾΤΤˤĤơȤ㤤Ǥ (cf. Quirk et al. 6.61ˡСԤϰ̣Ūξ뤤п (dual) äƤȤȤǤ
οƥνפʥСäξϡѸˤⲽŪʷǤϤޤ˺פĤƤޤboth, either, neither, other, whether ʤ -er ĤΤ¿Ǥ (cf. #3005. or θ츻 ([2017-07-19-1]))
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ѤʵϻĹ餯ʥäΤǤǶߤγ˻ŦƤ餦ꡤƹͤФǤfire -y դΤǤСΤޤ *firy Ǥ褵ʤΤǤʤ fiery ȤʤΤǤ礦expire expiry, mire miry, spire spiry, wire wiry ʤɤϤΤǤfire fiery Υפ¾㤬ʤ褦ʤΤǡޤޤԻĤǤ
Ū뤤ϥҥȤȤƤϡѸ fire 1ǤϤʤ2ǡfiery 2ǤϤʤ3ȯ줿ȤطΤǤϤʤˤǤޤ
ʽŪˤСѸ [fiːr], [ˈfiː ri] 첻 (gvs) ФƳơ [fəɪr], [ˈfəɪ ri] ѲޤĹ첻2첻ѲǡѲǤ줾첻ѲϤޤǤ
촴 r αƶǡľϤ겻Ȥۣ첻 [ə] 졤줬ΩγˤȤʤ褦ȯѸˤѰ۷Ȥ¸ߤ褦ʤΤǤפ fi-er, fi-e-ry Τ褦ʥץ饹1ΰ۷֤äȤȤǤ褦ʲĸˤĤơλݤƱ夫餢ޤJespersen ʡ11.11ˤεҤƤߤޤ礦
The glide before /r/ was even before that time [= 1588 or 1639] felt as a distinct vowel-sound [ə], especially after the new diphthongs that took the place of /iˑ, uˑ/. This is shown by the spelling in some cases after ow: shower < OE scūr bower < OE būr . cower < Scn kūra . lower by the side of lour < Scn lūra 'look gloomy'. tower < F tour; cf. on flower and flour 3.49. Thus also after i in brier, briar, frier, friar, ME brere, frere; fiery, fierie, fyeri (from the 16th c.) for earlier fyry, firy. The glide-vowel [ə] is also indicated by Hart's phonetic spellings 1569: [feiër/ fire (as /heiër/) higher) . /meier/ mire /oˑer/ oar . [piuër] pure . /diër/ dear . [hier/ here (hie r, which also occurs, many be a misprint).
פˡfire ηƻ˴ؤ¤ꡤȤȤȯ2Ǥꡤֻ2ˤߤͳ firy ⤢äɤ⡤ѸդˤȯϤ겻3Ȥʤꡤֻ⤽3ȯȿǤ fiery ʻѤ줿ȤȤΤ褦ǤơȤ̾ǤƱȤäƤȡ
ȤѸδ鿶֤äƤߤȡ̾ǤϤ겻ȿǤƤʤΤ褦 fire ֻɸȤƺѤ졤ƻǤϤ겻ȿǤΤ褦 fiery ֻɸȤƺѤƤޤä褦˸ޤɤ顤ѸˤǤŵŪʡʤȤ⡤դΡˡ֤ϤפǤⵯäƤޤäȤȤǤϤʤǤ礦
뤤ϡ̣Ρַ㤷פĤʤϢۤƻ fierce Ȥֻ (analogy) ⤢ä⤷ʤȵäƤޤǤ礦
ΰѤǤƤޤflower flour Ʊ츻ƱȯǤʤ⡤ۤʤֻʬȡ϶ᤤ褦˻פޤ#183. flower flour ([2009-10-27-1])#2440. flower flour (2) ([2016-01-01-1]) flower ʲ֡ˤ flour ʾʴˤƱ츻 (heldio) ⻲Ȥ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
ε#4649. Ļ̾ԲĻ̾ζ̤Ϥޤ줿Τ ([2022-01-18-1]) ȴϢơر̣äƤ줿ΤǡǹͤƤߤ
̾̾ԲĻ̾Ȥ괧 a(n) ʤƻǽˤ϶Ӥӡ괧ȼȤȤ롥С"Ours was a very happy marriage." "The book was a great success." Τ褦ʥǤ롥
ƻȼäƤ⸶§Ȥ괧ʤִǤ̾פ⤢롥ڤƤ줿إʸˡ (93) ȤƤߤȡθ줬ƤΤ good advice, remarkable progress, bitter weather ʤɤ괧ϼʤ
advice, applause, behavior, conduct, damage, fun, harm, homework, information, luck, music, news, nonsense, progress, weather, wisdom, work
դˤϹŪܤȤ褦Quirk et al. ʡ5.59ˤˤȡ괧줬դʸ3ĵƤ롥
Mavis had a good education.
My son suffers from a strange dislike of mathematics. <ironic>
She played the oboe with (a) remarkable sensitivity.
Τ褦ʥ괧줬դϤϤäꤷƤ餺ޤǼΤ褦ʾˤդ䤹ȤˤŦǤˤȤɤޤ롥
(i) the noun refers to a quality or other abstraction which is attributed to a person;
(ii) the noun is premodified and/or postmodified; and, generally speaking, the greater the amount of modification, the greater the acceptability of a/an.
ɸ꤬Ǥ뤳ȤʬäƤ
ʴ ۡʲˡ, ܳ, ⾾ʶˡŰʸˡ١ʸҡ2000ǯ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
̾βĻ (countability) ϸѸˤפܥ֥ǤޤȤ˰äȤʤäȤ˵Ť#4335. ̾βʬ ([2021-03-10-1])#4214. ʣ (1) ([2020-11-09-1])#4215. ʣ (2) ([2020-11-10-1])#2808. Jackendoff γǰ̣ ([2017-01-03-1]) դǴŪ˿Ƥ٤Ǥ롥伫ȡˤĤŪ˸äȤʤäȤȤ⤢롥
ܸüԤȤƱѸؤǤơʤñԲĻ̾ʤΤȵȤϰ٤٤ǤϤʤ˵ñϡΤޤ줽ǤƱѸǤϿȤȤˤʤäƤꡤ˿ˤϤñ̤ɽ魯Ļ̾Ѥɽ˥ѥե졼ʤФʤʤ㤨 Quirk et al. ʡ5.9ˤˤȼ̤ꡥ
| NONCOUNT NOUN | COUNT EQUIVALENT |
| This is important information | a piece/bit/word of information |
| Have you any news? | a piece/a bit/an item of good news |
| a lot of abuse | a term/word of abuse |
| some good advice | a piece/word of good advice |
| warm applause | a round of applause |
| How's business? | a piece/bit of business |
| There is evidence that . . . | a piece of evidence |
| expensive furniture | a piece/an article/a suite of furniture |
| The interest is only 5 percent. | a (low) rate of interest |
| What (bad/good) luck! | a piece of (bad/good) luck |
ε#4647. ȥ븦ư ([2022-01-16-1]) ˰³θȥ븦ˤĤơܸ缭ŵ٤֥פιɮƤ롤ʬͼԤǤ¼һˤСƱʬθˤ3ĤΥפȤ
ҲʸŪ1960ǯ˥եߥ˥ˤäƤ줿̤ˤϡֽ餷ˤ餷פȸƤФ롥åʪŪ̡ˤ̤˥ꤹ뤳Ȥˤꡤֽˤ餷פϼҲˤäƤĤ졤椨ˡѤ뤳Ȥ¿ζҲΥˤϡ(1) ξˤ2ʬƤ롤(2) 䤤礦Фʤ(3) оŪʸϴطǤˤּΡפǡϡ¾ԡסˡ(4) ͼ̱²顦ǯʤ¾θϴطȸƤ롤ʤɤħǧ롥åʪŪ¤ǥʸŪʪȤξԤ̤ͤϡ1980ǯΥݥȹ¤ˤäꤵ줿å (Joan Scott) ϡȤϡֿŪۤ˰̣ͿΡפȽҤ١Хȥ顼 (Judith Butler) ⡤ϥå⤽εǤ뤫Τ褦̵Ū˹ۤȼĥƤ롥ˡϤȤߤʤ奢ƥ⥸2ʬˡˤäƹۤƤ뤳ȤŦ졤å⥻奢ƥ⥸ˤäƵꤵƤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤʤäߥϿʸҲʳؤԲķʽ׳ǰǤ롥ȥθϡ礭3Ĥʬ롥1ϡ˴ؤQμʥǥˤϤɤΤ褦˹ۤ줿Τ餫ˤʬϤǤ롥ϡQμϸˤäƺȤա (Michel Foucault) λŦ˴ŤƤ롥ɽդˤ륻ϥʤɡ̤Ƥ줿ޤ⡤ºݤ˻ȤäƤջȤǤϤʤ˴ؤ른ǥȤªľ졤ˤŪۤ椵Ƥ롥2ϡʬϡʬϡʤɤˤꡤǥƥƥι۲餫ˤʬǤ롥θˤƤϡä°Ȥߤʤܼ˴Ťơ˽äΰ㤤餫ˤ椬ԤƤͤϡ餫äƤ륢ǥƥƥɽ뤿ˤȤФȤäƤΤǤϤʤޤޤäȤʬ뤳Ȥ¿ͤʥǥƥƥɽƤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤʤäǡǥƥƥ٤θǤϤʤ̤ȤߤʤۼƤ줿ϡ٤ˤäƺ夲륢ǥƥƥ֥٤η̤Ǥ롥ۼˤСΤ褦ΥǥƥƥȷӤĤǤϡ˸¤餺⤬ǥƥƥۤѤǤȤªľ롥ġɤΤ褦ʸǥƥƥۤѤΤäμĴ롥3ϡμŪʸ٤¸Υѳפ餫ˤ뤳ȤǤ롥ʹƤ餦ˤϡҲǶͭƤȤʤҲˤϡ¤줿ǥƥƥȷӤĤѰդƤʤη̡äϡޤޤʸȤ߹碌ꤺ餷ꤷʤ顤¿ͤʥǥƥƥɽ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Τ褦ʡ֤줿١פˤϡλ۴طѲǽ롥
3ĤΥפ˥٥ŽĤСΤ褦ˤʤ
(1) ҲΥǥιۤ˴ؤ븦
(2) ĿͤΥǥƥƥιۤ˴ؤ븦
(3) ¸Υѳפ˴ؤ븦
ʤѸ˸ˤƤϡŤʸ˰ޤ˸Ѥ˽ȤָŵŪפȤ٤꤬¿褦˻פ롥
ܸزԡˡܸ缭ŵ١Ʋ2018ǯ
ܥ֥Ǥϼ˼Ҳؤδȥ͡˼夲Ƥgender gender_difference γƵȤ櫓䤬ָפ˴ؤ뵭åȤ줿
ȥ븦ϡѤ˽ȤˤȤɤޤʤष˽ϺήԤʤʤäƤƤ롥ˤ른ϡθȤƤ褦˸Ū°ǤϤʤषưŪ°ǤȤȤ館褦ˤʤäƤȤطʤˤ롥Swann et al. ΰ (165--66) ˤꡤθưĤǤ
language and gender The relationship between language and gender has long been of interest within SOCIOLINGUISTICS and related disciplines. Early twentieth-century studies in LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY looked at differences between women's and men's speech across a range of languages, in many cases identifying distinct female and male language forms (although at this point language and gender did not exist as a distinct research area). GENDER has also been a SOCIAL VARIABLE in studies of LANGUAGE VARIATION carried out since the 1960s, a frequent finding in this case being that, among speakers from similar social class backgrounds, women tend to use more standard or prestige language features and men more vernacular language features. There has been an interest, within INTERACTIONAL SOCIOLINGUISTICS, in female and male interactional styles. Some studies have suggested that women tend to use more supportive or co-operative styles and men more competitive styles, leading to male DOMINANCE of mixed-gender talk. Feminist researchers, in particular, have also been interested in SEXISM, or sexist bias, in language.
Studies that focus simply on gender differences have been criticised by feminist researchers for emphasising difference (rather than similarity); seeing male speech as the norm and female speech as deviant; providing inadequate and often stereotypical interpretations of WOMEN'S LANGUAGE; and ignoring difference in POWER between female and male speakers.
More recently (and particularly in studies carried out since the late 1980s and 1990s) gender has been reconceptualised to a significant extent. It is seen as a less 'fixed' and unitary phenomenon than hitherto, with studies emphasising, or at least acknowledging, considerable diversity among female and male speakers, as well as the importance of CONTEXT in determining how people use language. Within this approach, gender is also seen less as an attribute that affects language use and more as something that is performed (or negotiated and perhaps contested) in interactions . . . .
ʹߡˤѤκۤȤ⡤ˤ른Τۤ˸δؿܤäƤǤ¤ݥȹ¤ؤή졤ȤɽǤ롥
Swann, Joan, Ana Deumert, Theresa Lillis, and Rajend Mesthrie, eds. A Dictionary of Sociolinguistics. Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama P, 2004.
NHK饸ֺ¡δñѸ in Englishפ2ΥƥȤȯ䤵ޤǯϢΡֱѸΥܥʵפ11ϡ֤ʤ eleven, twelve ȤΡפǤ1319ޤǤ X-teen ȤǡX + 10פȤ狼䤹ΤǤ1112ˤĤƤϴԤ *oneteen, *twoteen ȤϤʤޤϤʤʤΤǤ礦

ܥ֥Ǥϡ#3279. ǯٽΡѤʵפ3 ([2018-04-19-1]) ˤơ˴ñ˿ޤ狼ʤȤ¿ΤǤǤĤޤΤϢܵǤǤϡ¾ thirteen fifteen ˤĤƤˤäƤޤʤľ *threeteen *fiveteen ȤʤʤΤȤѤʵǤҥƥȤ˼äƤФȻפޤ
ȤΤ˿ȶʸäǤeleven, twelve ˴ؤ餺椬¿췲Ǥ⤢ޤषŪ٤⤹뤫餳쥮顼ʤȤ¿ΤȻפޤԻĤˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ numeral γƵǼ夲ƤޤΤǡ⤴
ػɾ2022ǯ1 (no. 1262) ˡֻפδȤơ֡ȿɤDZѸؤ֡ (pp. 36--41) ǺܤƤޤ2020ǯ2021ǯˤƱѸ쿷֡3̾Ԥˤ3ܤεǤʥ饤ǤǤϤޤǤʤ褦Ǥˡ
¼ 쿿ʰسˡֱѸɲdzȤ (pp. 36--37)
ʼʷʸˡ֥ƥޥΤѸΤ狼 (pp. 38--39)
ĤߡʷشĶˡֱѸͳ˻ȤΡȥޡɤν (pp. 40--41)
֡Ȥʤäϳơʲ̤Ǥ
¼ 쿿رѸɤ ˥塼SNS 龮ޤǡ١ҡӡ2021ǯ.
ʼرѸλˡäʸˡʸå١˼Ҥӡ2021ǯ
ĤߡرѸȽˡ١ȽŹҴȿӡ2020ǯ
ޤǤܿͤαѸؽǮϾ˹⤫äȤäƤ褤ǤѸؤ֤ο֡बΥߥ褿ȤΤϤ⤷ȤȻפäƤޤʤʤΤǤ礦ޤޤʤΤǤ礦ˤĤƻؿȤ٤ꤷޤVoicy λΥֱͥѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸ˤƼϿۿޤΤǡؿΤϤҤɤ
֡رѸλˡ١ʤˤԡʼȤ̡917
̡ʼȡֱѸ쿷֡פ1022
ػɾ٤εΤʤǡϡ֥ʤǡ֤֡פΥХɴԤΥࡼɤΤ˻פֱѲáפ⤸äܤɤȤͤΤ⤷ʤ (p. 38) ȽҤ٤Ƥޤ
Ѹٶȹ碌ƱѸˤγؽˤĤƤ⡤äƤߤƤϤǤ礦
ʸ嵭2022/03/03(Thu)嵭Ρػɾ٤ε饤Ǽͳ˱Ǥ褦ˤʤä褦Ǥɤ
ε#4643. 19--20λ̡軨Ȥ Punch ([2022-01-12-1]) ǡ19--20ɽ뼫ɲ軨 Punch Ҳ𤷤λϿο߽Фʤ뤤ϴ¸ΥѥȤΤήԤ餻ˤȤǤͭ̾ǡѸ˾塤̵뤹뤳ȤǤʤƶϤƤ
OED Punch Ȥñơ˸Ƥߤ227줬ҥåȤ㤨Сbi-monthly (adj., n,. adv.), brunch (v.), Chunnel (n.), gushy (adj.), hanky-panky (n.), punmanship (n.), snobbism (n.), thought control (n.), trendy (adj., n.), washerette (n.) ʤɡߤΤΤޤƿθ줬Ƥ롥
Punch ˤȤ꤬ȯͤȤʤä㡤ĤޤλȤ٤⤢롥curate's egg ʶк¡ɤȤⰭȤ⤢Ρˤϡ1895ǯ119 Punch ꡤβäޤ줿ΤȤ롥ʤ OED ˤСθλϼºݤΤȤƱǯ522 Judy 郎ȽƤ褦Punch ˤ̾äƤäȤդ⡤ƶϤ礭碌롥
Right Reverend Host: I'm afraid you've got a bad Egg, Mr. Jones!
The Curate: Oh no, my Lord, I assure you! Parts of it are excellent!
ȿФƤǤ롥
Crystal, David. Evolving English: One Language, Many Voices. London: The British Library, 2010.
19ˤϱƤǥ桼⥢ɤäפʪϤäΤʤǤȴƿ͵äΤ Punch Ǥ롥Ԥ Henry Mayhew, Mark Lemon, Joseph Stirling Coyne DzȤ Ebeneze Landells Ǥ롥ե Charivari ʸ츻ԾܡˤȤɻ郎Ƥꡤˤ䤫ä The London Charivari ȤΤۤϡ֥ݥΤ褦ʺʪפȤʤ뤳Ȥտޤ Punch 줿cf. #35. finger θ츻 ([2009-06-02-1])ˡ1841ǯϴ1992ǯޤǵ٤ळȤʤȯԤ줿1996ǯ2002ǯޤήȺˤꡤĤѴȤʤä
λϱѸŪˤͤ⤤ȤΤ⡤Ѹ鸽Ѹˤơ͡αѸʤ뤤ϸˤФҲŪ٤ʤΤǤäɤ̤ƶƤ뵮Ťʻפˡθ콬̤ФäΤǤ (Crystal 93)
Punch εɤΤϡ¤ϤȤƤɤˤϡλλŪμɬפ¤αѸϤǤɤ߲ʤȤ¿ʸ̤ "philological" μɬפȤ롥äơѸʤαѸˡˤζȤƤϤäƤĤȤȤˤʤ롥
ʲϡ1841ǯ71ڡˤϴɽڡ1ڡ
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ε#4641. ΥǥեȤν --- ֡֡տ ([2022-01-10-1]) ǡѸ¤ӽˤĤƼ夲Ȥ櫓褯Ȼפֶ֡פȡֻ֡פ¤ӽϡǥեȤǤϤνĤޤ֤ɤǤġפǤ롥ܸǤϡ֤Ĥɤǡפ̤ʤΤǡȿФνȤȤˤʤ롥
ǤϡŤѸǤϤɤäΤѸȰۤʤꡤűѸǤϡ˸¤ʤ˸礬ŪͳäȤ𤬤äΤȤΥǥեȤθˤƶƤΤ˴ؤơűѸʬۤˤĤ York-Toronto-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Old English Prose ѤĴ Chrambach ʸɤǤߤ͡ʥѥꤷ¿ҲϤߤƤ롥
ȤƤϡѸΡ֤ɤǤġפȤȿФΡʤĤޤܸΡˡ֤ĤɤǡפȤȤΤ褦ηϡűѸγƻ˴ؤƻٻ졤ƥȤǤƥȤǤƱͤ˳ǧ졤ˤطʤȤΤȤ (Chrambach 52)
ǤϡʤűѸǤϡ֤ĤɤǡפäΤʸǤϡ֤ʤפޤǤƧ߹ǤʤʬۤˤĤ餫ˤʤäȤϤ褦ʬۤˤ REALIZATION FORM OBLIGATORINESS 2ĤװѤƤȤŪˤСֻפ뤤ϡղûʸפȤĤʤ꤬뤳Ȥȡ줬֤ĤɤǡפνȤƸ뤳ȤȤŦƤ (Chrambach 52--53)
űѸΥѥΥǡ˴ŤפȤʸǡưפ˲᤹뤳ȤϤǤʤΤ⤷ηȤȡѸϸűѸŪʡ֤Ĥɤǡץפ顤ѸŪʡ֤ɤǤġץפ˥եȤƤȤˤʤ롥ϤʤʤΤѸѸǤνϤɤäΤˤĤơ̸Ūˡ뤤Ω줫鲿Τ̣䤤Ǥ롥
Chrambach, Susanne. "The Order of Adverbials of Time and Place in Old English." Contact, Variation, and Change in the History of English. Ed. Simone E. Pfenninger, Olga Timofeeva, Anne-Christine Gardner, Alpo Honkapohja, Marianne Hundt and Daniel Schreier. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins, 2014. 39--59.
ɸϡѸǤФм夲Ǥ롥ղø (adjunct) ȸƤФ礬ϢȤɤΤ褦ʽ֤ΤQuirk et al. (8.87) "Relative positions of adjuncts" ˤƳ⤷ƤƤΤǡݡѤ
In the relevant sections, we have given indications of the norms of position in respect of each class of adjunct. We turn now to consider the positions of adjunct classes in respect of each other. Two general principles can be stated, applying to relative order whether within a class or between classes:
(i) The relative order, especially of sentence adjuncts, can be changed to suit the demands of information focus . . . .
(ii) Shorter adjuncts tend to precede longer ones, and in practice this often means that adverbs precede noun phrases, which precede prepositional phrases, which precede nonfinite clauses, which precede finite clauses.
Subject to these general principles, where adjuncts cluster in E [= end] position, the normal order is:
respect --- process --- space --- time --- contingency
It would be highly unusual to find all such five at E (or indeed all such five in the same clause), but for the purposes of exemplification we might offer the improbable and stylistically objectional (sic). . .:
John was working on his hobby [respect] with the new shears [process] in the rose garden [place] for the whole of his day off [time] to complete the season's pruning [contingency].
The same point could be made more acceptably (but at greater length) by forming a series of sentences, each with any two of these adjuncts.
Adjuncts that can occur at I (= initial) are usually those that either have relatively little information value in the context (eg in reflecting what can be taken for granted) or are relatively inclusive or 'scene-setting' in their semantic role (eg an adjunct of time). Thus:
That whole morning, he devoted himself to his roses.
Not only is the adjunct at I one of time, but the anaphoric that indicates that the period concerned has already been mentioned. It is unusual to have more than one adjunct at I except where one is realized by a pro-form (especially then), but they would tend to be in the reverse order to that observed at E. In practice, this usually means:
space --- time orprocess --- time
For example:
In America [A1], after the election [A2], trade began to improve.
Slowly [A1] during this period [A2] people were becoming more prosperous.
Ȥ櫓֤Ȼ֤ˤĤƤϸѸǤϤνǡʤ֤ɤǤġפν֤Τ̤Ǥ뤳ȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ܸǤ֤̾ĤɤǡפȤʤΤǡȿФȤȤˤʤ롥
ˤĤƱѸˤδδؿϡΤ餳νäΤȤǤ롥⤷Ȥˡɤä褦ʤΤǤ롥εǡ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Ѹ an angel of a girl ŷȤΤ褦ʾפΤ褦 of ѤʸˤĤơ#2461. an angel of a girl (1) ([2016-01-22-1]) #2462. an angel of a girl (2) ([2016-01-23-1]) Ǽ夲Ȥ뤬ܸˤ̣Ū㤬Ȥ˽вä (83) ˤȡܸȱѸ͡ʥ齸ȤƼΤΤƤ롥
(1) a. αžʡǤ뱿žꡨcf. ž
b. žνʡ᱿žǤcf. *ž
(2) a. a village like a jewel
b. a jewel *(of) a village
(3) a. λ⤵ʤ3000ȥǤ롥
b. λ3000ȥ*ʤΡ˹⤵Ǥ롥
(4) a. It rose with great rapidity until it reached the height of 400 feet, ...
b. Lead-glazed earthenware; height 7 feet, 10 1/2 inches over-all.
c. Asher smiled quizzically, as he spread his broad brown hands before his face and drew himself up to his full six feet *(of) height.
(83) ϡʸˡȤߤ˰͵Τ褦ʹʸ̾ŪҼʸפȸƤʬϤƤ롥̾ǰ̣Ū˼ȽҸʬ֤Ǥ礬ꡤκݤ˷Ҽof ֤Ρסˤ빽ʸΤȤǤ롥(1a), (2a), (3a), (4a, b) ǤϷҼʤʤ뤤ϵ̳ŪǤϤʤˤ(1b), (2b), (3b), (4c) ǤϷҼ̳ŪȤʤȤħ롥ޤŪ˸ԥ롼פԥ롼פƤȤ⤢Ȥϸԥ롼פŪʽи칽¤ʣ̤ȤߤƤꡤʣŪʸפȸƤǤ (92)
(3), (4) Τ褦˿̤ñ̤˴ؤ̾칽¤ʾ p. 83 ǡּ̾칽ʸפȸƤǤˤϡܸǤѸǤΤʣȻפäƤ a jewel of a village an angel of a girl ꤬ӤĤȤͽۤ⤷ʤä⤷ΤϡΤ褦ͽ۳δϢƤˤ롥
of ؤ¾ȤƤϡ#4116. It's very kind of you to come. of ˡϡ ([2020-08-03-1])#4117. It's very kind of you to come. of ˡŪˤϡֹټԡס ([2020-08-04-1]) դ⻲ȡ
˧Ѹ̾ŪҼʸ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡסإ쥭οʥץٴ ƻ Ϻԡˡǡ2019ǯ81--111ǡ
̤˸ˤơ¤ (information_structure) δ顤ȤʤʼȤϸ¤ʤˤʸƬʸ֤Τ˾ޤȤ롥ܸΤ褦ʼͳʸĸǤС¸뤳ȤϤ䤹ºݡܸƱͤ˸礬ŪͳäűѸǤ⡤ξ¤˱뤳Ȥʤä
ḽѸΤ褦ʤ褽경ĸξˤϡ餫ιפ餵ʤФʤʤűѸ줫ѸˤʸʸˡȤƤV2§졤礬경ƤˤĤơȤʤʸƬˤäƤ뤿ˡˤʤäΤ褦ʾˤäơפʼʤ1Ĥܤ褦ˤʤäΤưʸǤ롥ǽưʸˤŪ줬Ȥʤ硤ǽưʸưʸ˴뤳ȤˤꡤŪ줬ȤʤꡤʤʸƬ֤褦ˤʤ뤫
θ경ȼưʸ¿ѲȤ츫Ω2ĤŪݤϡ¤ȤŪʳǰΩȤƴϢŤΤǤ롥ϡ#4561. Ⱦ¤θ ([2021-10-22-1]) ̤Ǥ롥ʤȤⲾȤƤ϶̣
β¾ڤ褦Ȥ Seoane 롥Helsinki Corpus 1518ޤǤʬʤʤV2§줿λΥ֥ѥˤѤĴˤСʲ̤ꡤɤäƼưʸΨƤ뤳Ȥʬ (Seoane 371)
| Words | Actives | Percent active | Passives | Percent passive | |
| M4 (1420--1500) | 44,000 | 2,928 | 81.9 | 647 | 18.0 |
| E1 (1500--1570) | 50,000 | 2,236 | 78.5 | 612 | 21.4 |
| E2 (1570--1640) | 48,000 | 2,550 | 77.9 | 722 | 22.0 |
| E3 (1640--1710) | 55,000 | 2,893 | 78.5 | 2,903 | 21.3 |
| Total | 197,000 | 10,607 | 78.5 | 2,903 | 21.3 |
űѸɸ줬äɤȤˤĤƤϡǤˡ#3260. űѸˤɸಽ ([2018-03-31-1]) #4013. ָűѸɸפβ ([2020-04-22-1]) ǹͻƤŪˤϡָűѸɸ ("Standard Old English") ϡGneuss αƶϤΤʸ˴ŤȤǧƤаޤ롥ǯθǤϸűѸˤŪɸϵǤȲᤵ褦ˤʤäƤ롥
Ѽ郎ɸǤȸȤɤΤ褦ʴǤΤ褦˸ΤȤΤ Haugen ɸಽǥǤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ#2742. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ ([2016-10-29-1]) #2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) ([2016-11-01-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥʤ Selection, Codification, Elaboration of function, Acceptance 4Ѽ盧äɸȤ櫓Ǥ롥
Haugen δ˽¤ꡤŪˡָűѸɸפȸƤȥ뤤 Ælfric θĿ (idiolect) ϡɸȤǧǤʤɸݤΤȤϲǽ⤷ʤɸ줽ΤΤǤϤʤHogg (401) ⤳ŦƤ롥
No matter how much we modify Haugen's criteria to accommodate a different age, it is difficult to see how we can describe Ælfrician Old English as a standard language. This is not to deny the validity of Gneuss's remarks in general, but it does seem as if he misunderstood their import. There is a viable alternative. This is to claim, following Smith (1996: 65--7), that we are dealing, in the case of Ælfric, with a focused language, rather than a standard language. the mark of a focused language is that rather than having fixed, codified forms, it contains a small amount of internal variation and as such it attract other varieties which have further variations of their own. But these other varieties then tend to adopt at least some of the forms of the focused and more prestigious language.
űѸˡɸפϤʤääΤϡ־줿 (focused) ѼˤʤȤȤǤ롥
Ϣơ#4014. ȥȸȥδط ([2020-04-23-1]) ⻲ȡɸಽε̤ˤĤƤϤ standardisation ɤ
Gneuss, H. "The Origin of Standard Old English and Æthelwold's School at Winchester." Anglo-Saxon England 1 (1972): 453--58.
Hogg, Richard. "Old English Dialectology." Chapter 16 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 395--416.
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.
Ѹ˸ǤϡѸȤ櫓18ɸŪȯƱȿƤ18ȤСλפǤꡤˤĤƤФޤ˵ϼ (prescriptivism) λǤ롥#1456. John Walker A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791) ([2013-04-22-1]) ɽȤơɸŪǵŪȯ뼭ȽǤ줿äɸŪϰҲϿ;ϤʤɤʤȿƤ
ͤƤߤСϼθȤΤϡ֡ȤȯˡѤ٤פȤǤϤʤ֢ȤȯˡѤ٤餺פ⤯Ȥ¿Ĥޤꡤػߤ٤Ȥ֢פɸŪʸɽ路ƤΤȲǤΤǤ롥äΤ뤳ȤϡʤΰŪʸ촷뤳ȤˤĤʤΤǤ롥ʸؾξڵ (evidence) ɥȤưΤɤǤ֤ȤäƤ褤Beal ʸϡޤˤΤɤǤ֤ϪƤƤ롥Beal (345--46) ηѤ褦
I hope that I have demonstrated that, even though the authors of these works [= prescriptive works] were prescribing what they viewed as 'correct' pronunciation, a proto-RP used by educated, higher-class speakers in London, they were often acute observers of the variants which were proscribed. In telling their readers which pronunciations to avoid, they provide us with a record of precisely those non-standard features that were most salient at the time. Such evidence can fill in the gaps in the histories of dialects, provide answers to puzzles such as those surrounding the reversal of mergers, and, perhaps most importantly, can provide time-depth to the 'apparent-time' studies so prevalent in current variationist work.
ʸؤˤƤϾڵ꤬ǽפǤ뤳ȤƹͤƤ롥
Beal, Joan C. "Marks of Disgrace: Attitudes to Non-Standard Pronunciation in 18th-Century English Pronouncing Dictionaries. Methods and Data in English Historical Dialectology. Ed. Marina Dossena and Roger Lass. Bern: Peter Lang,2003. 329--49.
ε#4635. "Great Complement Shift" ʸܡס ([2022-01-04-1]) ǰѤ Rohdenburg ϡǧξʣʸˡŪŪɽޤ褦ˤʤȤ "complexity principle" ʣθפˤĤƤͻƤ롥Rohdenburg (147) ꡤƤߤ褦
The complexity principle:
In the case of more or less explicit constructional options the more explicit one(s) will tend to be preferred in cognitively more complex environments.
θθ̤ϡ̻ŪѲȤƤⶦŪѰۤȤƤ⡤ޤ̸ŪˤǧȤ㤨мΤ褦ʤΤǤ (Rohdenburg 147--48)
طƳʤʣĸˤơŪʣʴĶǤϡŪƳʤ뷹롥
μ줬Ĺʤäˡ̾Ǽľˡ¿Υ衼åѤθ˴ѻ롥
ʸǧŪʣǤ롥ʸϤФк¤Ūʸ¤롥
ܤƤʤǤɤŪפϡФŪʷˤäɸ롥
Ѹ줫ζŪȤơεǰѤʸܤ褦"He hesitated about whether he should do it/whether to do it." Ǥʸ whether whether Τ⸽뤬礬Ƥʣˤʤäʸ "He hesitated for a very long time about whether he should do it." ˤƤϡŪ whether 䤹Ȥ (Rohdenburg 148)
ޤ"She advised to do it in advance.", "She advised doing it in advance.", "She advised that it (should) be done in advance." ѰۤˤĤơʸˤ "She advised that it (should) not be done in advance." Τ褦 that ʸФ䤹褦 (Rohdenburg 149--50)
Rohdenburg, Günter. "The Role of Functional Constraints in the Evolution of the English Complement System." Syntax, Style and Grammatical Norms: English from 1500--2000. Ed. Christiane Dalton-Puffer, Dieter Kastovsky, Nikolaus Ritt, and Herbert Schendl. Bern: Peter Lang, 2006. 143--66.
Ѹˤκǽץɤ1ĤǤ "Great Vowel Shift" ʡ첻ܡ; gvsˤˤĤƤܥ֥Ǥ¿夲Ƥˤʤ̾դ줿 "Great Complement Shift" ʡʸܡ; gcsˤˤĤƤϡ#860. ѸѲѰۤΰ ([2011-09-04-1]) Ǥ̾˸ڤ٤ǤۤȤɼ夲ƤƤʤäϡѸ˾塤ưʬ¤ (complementation) 礭ѲƤݤؤʬͼԤǤ Rohdenburg (143) פʸƬǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Over the past few centuries, English has experienced a massive restructuring of its system of sentential complementation, which may be referred to as the Great Complement Shift.
ʸ¤ѲȤäƤ⡤ºݤˤ͡ʼѲޤޤƤ롥餬ߤˤɤΤ褦ʴطĤΤ餫ˤƤʤRohdenburg ϤޤȤ GCS ȸƤǤ롥Rohdenburg (143--45) ϡΤ褦̻ŪѲʤ뤤Ϥ붦ŪѰۡˤƤ롥
(1) She delighted to do it. She delighted in doing it.
(2) She was used/accustomed to do it. He was used/accustomed to doing it.
(3) She avoided/dreaded to go there. She avoided/dreaded going there.
(4) He helped (to) establish this system.
(5) They gave us some advice (on/as to) how it should be done.
(6) a. He hesitated (about) whether he should do it.
b. He hesitated (about) whether to do it.
(7) a. She was at a loss (about) what she should do.
b. She was at a loss (about) what to do.
(8) a. She advised to do it in advance.
b. She advised doing it in advance.
c. She advised that it (should) be done in advance.
(9) a. He promised his friends to return immediately.
b. He promised his friends (that) he would return immediately.
夳1ĤΥפȤळȤưʸȤư̾졤졤that ᡤֻʤɤΤΤ˴ؤ̻ŪѲƤȡƸߤǤ⤷ФжŪѰۤߤȤȤGCS μݤǤ롥
Rohdenburg, Günter. "The Role of Functional Constraints in the Evolution of the English Complement System." Syntax, Style and Grammatical Norms: English from 1500--2000. Ed. Christiane Dalton-Puffer, Dieter Kastovsky, Nikolaus Ritt, and Herbert Schendl. Bern: Peter Lang, 2006. 143--66.
ʬ̤줿ȤŪ˥åץǡȤĤľҲ𤷤Ƥ Oxford Bibliographies ꡤ"History of the English Language" ιܤȤƤߤʤ٤Ƥɤˤϥ֥饤֤ɬסˡ˱Ѹˤ椷Ƥ Ans van Kemenade Bettelou Los ˤǡǿι2019ǯ711ȤʤäƤ롥 *
ȥȤơѸ˸ñƤ롥19Ⱦа衤űѸѸβƥȹ˸椵Ƥ1970ǯפžȤơѲѥؤʤɡˤĤʤѸ˸οĬή
The study of the history of the English language has a long and rich tradition, starting with a range of editions of important Old and Middle English texts in the middle of the 19th century, many of which are still available as reprints from the early English Text Society . . . . The linguistic study of the history of English took off in the 20th century with a range of traditional grammars usually concerned with the phonology and morphology of Old and Middle English and a further range of detailed studies of the language of particular texts and of particular dialects areas. Since the 1970s and in the wake of the development of functionalist and formalist models of language structure, language use, and diachronic change, the various historical stages of English and the diachronic changes in the domains of phonology, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics have also become a favorite playground of historical linguists. The study of these aspects has been greatly enhanced by the recent boost of computerized corpora, including text corpora as well as corpora enriched with various types of linguistic information. The history of English in all its breadth has thus become a field of study that draws both on rich documentation and on linguistic and methodological sophistication.
ǯ˱ѸˤؤӻϤ뤤Ϥ˳ؤ³ϡѸ˳ؽΤΰŪȤơҡ#4358. Ѹ˳ν2021ǯǡˡ ([2021-04-02-1])#4557. ֱѸˤؤξԡ10ס ([2021-10-18-1]) ȤԤˤĤƤ Voicy 饸Ǥ̡ѸˤİƤߤƤߤ襤ƤȻפޤ
ǯ62˲ۿץåȥե Voicy ˤֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸ꤹͥץޤʸ塤Ƥޤcf. #4421. ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸פץޤ ([2021-06-04-1])ˡȤhellog 饸ǡ碌Ƥɤ
쿷ǯǯѸˤ˴ؤĹ³hellog?Ѹ˥֥³Ƥޤ³ꤤޤ
2021ǯܥ֥ΤɤεǤ褯ɤޤ줿Ĵ٤Ƥߤޤ1230դΥ (access ranking) Υȥå500ʺǯǤȰǯǤˤĤƤϡ줾#4267. 2020ǯˤ褯ɤޤ줿 ([2021-01-01-1]) ȡ#3901. 2019ǯˤ褯ɤޤ줿 ([2020-01-01-1]) ɤˡ
ѤʵϤε (sobokunagimon) 褯ɤޤƤ褦ʤΤǡηǾ̤äƤ50ۤɤʲ˵Ƥޤʳƹοǯ֥ˡɤʪʥ饸ξİʪˤȤƤɤ
#4188. ʤ sheep ʣ sheep ʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-10-14-1]) (8159)
#4044. ʤΤȥ֥åΤξʸ <a> λϰ㤦ΤǤ ([2020-05-23-1]) (7541)
#3717. ؤȲϤɤ㤦ΤǤ ([2019-07-01-1]) (5679)
#43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1]) (5164)
#1299. Ѹǡ֤ߤפΤȤ satsuma ȤΤϤʤ ([2012-11-16-1]) (4807)
#4017. ʤֻθǤϿ;̾ŪʤΤǤ ([2020-04-26-1]) (3126)
#1258. ʤ¾ưפ "transitive verb" ʤΤ ([2012-10-06-1]) (2937)
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#2924. ֥ƥפθ츻 ([2017-04-29-1]) (1882)
#4069. ʤ live ȯưǤϡ֥סƻȡ֥饤פʤΤǤ ([2020-06-17-1]) (1845)
#2502. ʤˤ to ȸ2बΤ ([2016-03-03-1]) (1801)
#4060. ʤפ̣ spirit ־αפ̣Τ ([2020-06-08-1]) (1695)
#4196. ʤѸǤӤ zzz ʤΤǤ ([2020-10-22-1]) (1598)
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#2885. ʤֻܴط̾ thatפʤΤ (1) ([2017-03-21-1]) (1563)
#1205. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1]) (1539)
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#4199. ʤ last ˤϡֺǸΡפȡַ³פΰ̣ΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-10-25-1]) (1526)
#3648. ʤ *He cans swim. Τ褦˽ưˤ3ñ -s ĤʤΤǤ ([2019-04-23-1]) (1475)
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ǯϳؤӻϤˤդ路Ǥ⤢ޤѸˤ˴ؿä˴ؿϡ#4359. ұѸ˳ؽΤ hellog γѤ2021ǯǡˡ ([2021-04-03-1]) ֤ʤѸˤؤ֤פεå
ޤܥ֥Ȥ̤ˡǯ62˲ۿץåȥե Voicy ˤֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸ꤹͥץޤdzؤֱѸˤȤۿƤޤΤǡİcf. #4421. ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸פץޤ ([2021-06-04-1])ˡ
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